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A DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVE ON SUBSIDIES: ENVIRONMENTALLY HARMFUL SUBSIDIES AND THEIR SECTORAL PRACTICES

Yıl 2021, Sayı: 121, 65 - 97, 08.07.2021
https://doi.org/10.52836/sayistay.966588

Öz

The effectiveness of subsidies as a well-established public policy tool has started to be questioned with the deterioration of environmental conditions. For this reason, how the subsidies are applied, the total size they reach in the world and in various countries, and their effects are being increasingly examined. Environmentally harmful subsidies (EHS) on global and national scale have reached such large amounts that the EHS rate in a single sector can exceed 1% of the global gross domestic product (GDP). The most common EHS areas are agriculture, forestry, fossil fuel, transport, and fishing. In the face of these developments, some countries have taken important steps towards full-cost pricing instead of subsidy policy in recent years. This study aims to generate a basis for a different classification by highlighting the environmental effects of subsidies, which are not considered much, and to analyze the results of subsidy implementation around the world. According to the results obtained from the analysis, long-term and very general subsidy applications lead to EHS due to excessive consumption of natural resources and increased waste generation.

Kaynakça

  • Acar, Sevil, Lucy Kitson, Richard Bridle (2015), Subsidies to Coal and Renewable Energy in Turkey, Geneva: International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD), Global Subsidies Initiative Report.
  • Amegashie, J. Atsu (2006), The Economics of Subsidies, Crossroads, 6(2), pp.7-15.
  • Andres, Luis A., Michael Thibert, Camilo Lombana Cordoba, Alexander V. Danilenko, George Joseph, and Christian Borja-Vega (2019), Doing More with Less: Smarter Subsidies for Water Supply and Sanitation, Washington: World Bank.
  • Arıkboğa, Ülkü (2019), Çevre Politikasının Ekonomik Araçları ve Türkiye’de Belediye Uygulamaları, Marmara Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, 41(1), ss. 23-50.
  • Arthur, R, S Heyworth, J. Pearce, W. Sharkey (2019), The Cost of Harmful Fishing Subsidies, International Institute for Environment and Development(IIED) Working Paper,London: IIED.
  • Bannon, Eoin (2019), €24bn in Fossil Fuel Subsidies ‘A Perverse Incentive’ for Shipping Pollution, Transport & Environment, https://www.transportenvironment.org/ news/€24bn-fossil-fuel-subsidies-‘-perverse-incentive’-shipping-pollution, (Erişim:6.10.2020)
  • Boone, Laurence (2019), The Time for Reform is Now to Respond to Global Challenges, https://oecdecoscope.blog/2019/07/12/the-time-for-reform-is-now/?print=pdf, (Erişim: 7.05.2021)
  • BP (2020), Statistical Review of World Energy 2020, 69th edition, London.
  • Burniaux, Jean-Marc, Jean Chateau (2014), Greenhouse Gases Mitigation Potential and Economic Efficiency of Phasing-Out Fossil Fuel Subsidies, International Economics, V.140, pp.71–88.
  • Climate Transparency (2019), Brown to Green: The G20 Transition Towards a Net-Zero Emissions Economy, Berlin:
  • Coady, D., Sears L. Parry, B. Shan (2017), How Large Are Global Energy Subsidies?, World Development, V.91, pp.11–27.
  • Çelikkaya, Ali (2017), “Avrupa Birliği Üyesi Ülkelerde Yenilenebilir Enerjiye Sağlanan Teşvikler Üzerine Bir İnceleme”, Sayıştay Dergisi, s.104, ss. 1-26.
  • Dobbs, Richard, Jeremy Oppenheim, Fraser Thompson, Marcel Brinkman, Marc Zornes (2011), Resource Revolution: Meeting the World’s Energy, Materials, Food, and Water Needs, McKinsey Company.
  • El Sobki, M., P. Wooders, Y. Sherif (2009), Clean Energy Investment in Developing Countries: Wind Power in Egypt, Winnipeg: International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD).
  • Estupiñán, Nicolás, Andrés Gómez-Lobo, Ramón Muñoz-Raskin, Tomás Serebrisky (2007), Affordability and Subsidies in Public Urban Transport: What Do We Mean, What Can Be Done?, Washington: The World Bank Latin America and the Caribbean Region Sustainable Development Department.
  • European Environment Agency-EEA (2019), Trends in Mean Summer Chlorophyll-a Concentrations in Europe’s Sea, https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/ figures/trends-in-mean-summer-chlorophyll-a-concentrations-in-europes-seas, (Erişim: 22.11.2020).
  • European Environment Agency-EEA (2007), Size, Structure and Distribution of Transport Subsidies in Europe: EEA Technical Report No:3, Copenhagen.
  • European Commission (2020), Statistical Pocketbook, https://ec.europa.eu/transport/facts-fundings/statistics/pocketbook-2020_en, (Erişim: 1.07.2021).
  • Farah, Paolo Davide, Elena Cima (2015), World Trade Organization, Renewable Energy Subsidies and the Case of Feed-In Tariffs: Time for Reform Toward Sustainable Development?, Georgetown International Environmental Law Review(GIELR), 27(1).
  • GSI (2009), Policy Brief: Achieving the G-20 Call to Phase Out Subsidies to Fossil Fuels,Geneva:
  • Hines, James H. (1998), “Tree Sides of Harberger Triangles”, NABER Working Paper, 6852, https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w6852/w6852.pdf) (Erişim: 02.07.2021).
  • Hogg, Dominic, Mikael Skou Andersen, Tim Elliott, Chris Sherrington, Thomas Vergunst, Sarah Ettlinger, Laurence Elliott, Joe Hudson (2014), Study on Environmental Fiscal Reform Potential in 12 EU Member States, AARHUS University and Eunomia.
  • IEA (2010), World Energy Outlook 2010, Paris.
  • IEA (2002), Electricity in India: Providing Power for the Millions. Paris.
  • IEA (1999), World Energy Outlook Insights, looking at Energy Subsidies: Getting the Prices Right, Paris.
  • Jellema, Jon, Nora Lustig, Astrid Haas, Sebastian Wolf (2016), The impact of taxes, transfers, and subsidies on inequality and poverty in Uganda, London: International Growth Centre.
  • Kahriman Hanbay, Esra (2020), “Küresel İklim Değişikliğinin Olumlu ve Olumsuz Dışsallıkları Üzerine Bir Değerlendirme”, Sayıştay Dergisi, 33(118), ss. 101-131.
  • Kjellingbro, Peter Marcus, Maria Skotte (2005), Environmentally Harmful Subsidies–Linkages Between Subsidies, the Environment and the Economy, Copenhagen: Environmental Assessment Institute.
  • Kotan, Özge (2015), DTÖ Müzakereleri Kapsamında Balıkçılık Sübvansiyonu Uygulamaları ve Türkiye’nin Tutumu, Avrupa Birliği Uzmanlık Tezi. Ankara.
  • Lin, Boqiang, Zhujun Jiang (2011), Estimates of Energy Subsidies in China and Impact of Energy Subsidy Reform, Energy Economics, 33(2), pp.273-283.
  • Mayand, Karel, Stéphanie Dionne, Marc Paquin, Isaak Pageot-LeBel (2003), The Economic and Environmental Impacts of Agricultural Subsidies: An Assessment of the 2002 US Farm Bill&Doha Round, Montreal.
  • Meyer, Sozialwirt Christian, Sebastian Schmidt, Bettina Meyer, Kai Schlegelmilch, Martin Schlereth (2009), Environmentally Harmful Subsidies: How Perverse Financial Incentives Threaten Biodiversity, Munich.
  • Milazzo, Matteo (1998), Subsidies in World Fisheries: A Re-Examination, Washington: World Bank Technical Paper. No. 406. Fisheries series.
  • Mohring, Herbert (1972), Optimization and Scale Economies in Urban Bus Transportation, The American Economic Review, 62(4), pp.591-604.
  • Morgan, Trevor (2007), Energy Subsidies: Their Magnitude, How They Affect Energy Investment and Greenhouse Gas Emissions, and Prospects for Reform, UNFCCC Secretariat Financial and Technical Support Programme.
  • Mullen, Katheleen, Dongsheng Sun, David Orden and Ashok Gulati (2004), Producer Support Estimates (PSEs) for Agriculture In Developing Countries: Measurement Issues and Illustrations from India and China, Washington D.C.: International Food Policy Research Institute.
  • Myers, Norman (2007), Perverse Subsidies, Inter Press Services, http://www.ipsnews. net/2007/08/perverse-subsidies (Erişim: 6.10.2020).
  • Myers, Norman ve Jennifer Kent (2001), Perverse Subsidies: How Tax Dollars Can Undercut the Environment and The Economy, Washington: Island Press.
  • Nedzel, Nadia E. (2018), “Subsidies”, Encyclopedia of Business Ethics and Society, R.W. Kolb(ed.), Thousand Oaks: Sage, pp.3291-3296.
  • O’Brien, Robert (1997), Subsidy Regulation and State Transformation in North America, the GATT and the EU, New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • OECD (2020a), Producer and Consumer Support Estimates, OECD Agriculture statistics (database), http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/agr-pcse-data-en (Erişim: 15.05.2021).
  • OECD (2020b), Govenrment Financial Transfers, Fisheries and Agriculture Statistics, (database), https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=FISH_GFT# (Erişim: 15.05.2021).
  • OECD (2019), Uncertain Global Economy Should Prompt Governments to Embark on Reforms That Boost Sustainable Growth, Raise Incomes and Increase Opportunities for All, OECD Press Release, 12/07/2019.
  • OECD (2017), Agricultural Policy Monitoring and Evaluation 2017, Paris.
  • OECD (2016), Review of Fisheries: Country Statistics 2015, Paris.
  • OECD (2010), Green Growth Strategy Interim Report: Implementing Our Commitment to a Sustainable Future. Paris.
  • OECD (2005), Environmentally Harmful Subsidies: Challenges for Reform, Paris.
  • OECD (2003a), Environmentally Harmful Subsidies: Policy Issues and Challenges, Paris.
  • OECD (2003b), Agricultural Trade and Poverty: Making Policy Analysis Count, Paris:Clearance Center.
  • Parkin, Michael, Melanie Powell, Kent Matthews (2005), Economics, (7th ed.), Harlow: Pearson-Addison Wesley.
  • Pauly, Daniel, Villy Christensen, Sylvie Guénette, Tony J. Pitcher, U. Rashid Sumaila, Carl J. Walters, R. Watson, Dirk Zeller (2002), Towards Sustainability in World Fisheries, Nature, V. 418.
  • Pearce, David (2003), “Environmentally Harmful Subsidies: Barriers to Sustainable Development”, Environmentally Harmful Subsidies: Policy Issues and Challenges, OECD (eds.), Paris, pp.9-30.
  • Pekin, Tevfik (1974), Teşvik Tedbiri Olarak Sübvansiyonlar ve İşletme Kararları Üzerindeki Etkileri, Bornova: Ege Üniversitesi Yayınları No:202.
  • Plunkett, H., R Wilson, S. Argy (1992), The Measurement of Effective Rates of Assistance in Australia, OECD Industry Commission Working Paper No.4, Belconnen.
  • Rands, Gordon P., Pamela J. Rands (2018), “Energy Sources”, Encyclopedia of Business Ethics and Society, R.W. Kolb, (eds), Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, pp.1126-1137.
  • Saunders, S., K. Schneider (2000), Removing Energy Subsidies in Developing and Transition Economies, ABARE, Conference Paper presented at 23rd Annual IAEE International Conference, Sydney.
  • Steenblik, Ronald P. (2003), “Subsidy Measurement and Classification: Developing A Common Framework”, OECD Workshop on Environmentally Harmful Subsidies: Policy Issues and Challenges, 7-8 November, Paris.
  • Steenblik, Ronald P. (1995), A Note on the Concept of Subsidy, Energy Policy, 23, pp.478- 492.
  • Steenblik, Ronald P., Kenneth J. Wigley (1990), “Coal Policies and Trade Barriers”, Energy Policy, 18(5), pp.351-367.
  • Strokov, Sergei, William H. Meyers (1996), Producer Subsidy Equivalents and Evaluation of Support to Russian Agricultural Producers, Iowa State University Center for Agricultural and Rural Development, Working Paper 96-WP 168, Ames.
  • Sumaila, U. Rashid, D. Pauly (2006), Catching More Bait: A Bottom-up Re-estimation of Global Fisheries Subsidies. Vancouver: University of British Columbia, Fisheries Center Research Report, 14(6).
  • T.C. Ticaret Bakanlığı, Sübvansiyonlar ve Telafi Edici Tedbirler Anlaşması, Bölüm I: Genel Hükümler.
  • UNEP (2008), Reforming Energy Subsidies: Opportunities to Contribute to the Climate Change Agenda, Geneva.
  • Uluatam, Özhan (2012), Kamu Maliyesi, 7.B., Ankara: İmaj Yayıncılık.
  • Von Moltke, A., C. McKee, T. Morgan (2004), Energy Subsidies: Lessons Learned in Assessing their Impact and Designing Policy Reforms, Sheffield: Greenleaf.
  • Watkins, Thayer (2021). The Impact of an Excise Tax or Subsidy on Price, San José State University Department of Economics. https://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/ taximpact.htm (Erişim: 30.03.2021).
  • World Bank (2012a), Inclusive Green Growth: The Pathway to Sustainable Development, Washington.
  • World Bank (2012b), The Real Cost of Fossil Fuels. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/ feature/2012/05/09/real-costs-fossil-fuel-subsidies (Erişim:02.10.2020).
  • World Trade Organization (2019), WTO Contribution to the 2019 High Level Political Forum.
  • World Trade Organization (2006), World Trade Report 2006: Exploring the Links between Subsidies, Trade and the WTO, Geneva.
  • Xu, Ping, Weiyu Wang, Chunxia Wei (2018), “Economic and Environmental Effects of Public Transport Subsidy Policies: A Spatial CGE Model of Beijing”, Mathematical Problems in Engineering.

SÜBVANSİYONLARA FARKLI BİR BAKIŞ: ÇEVREYE ZARARLI SÜBVANSİYONLAR VE SEKTÖREL UYGULAMALARI

Yıl 2021, Sayı: 121, 65 - 97, 08.07.2021
https://doi.org/10.52836/sayistay.966588

Öz

Köklü bir kamu politika aracı olan sübvansiyonların etkinliği, ağırlaşan çevresel koşullarla birlikte sorgulanmaya başlanmıştır. Bu nedenle sübvansiyonların uygulanma
şekilleri, dünyada ve çeşitli ülkelerde ulaştığı toplam büyüklükler ve bunların etkileri giderek artan oranda incelenmektedir. Küresel ve ulusal boyutta çevreye zararlı
sübvansiyonlar (ÇZS) büyük tutarlara ulaşmıştır. Öyle ki, tek bir sektördeki ÇZS oranı, küresel gayrisafi yurtiçi hasılanın (GSYİH) %1’ini geçebilmektedir. En çok karşılaşılan ÇZS alanları tarım, ormancılık, fosil yakıt, ulaşım ve balıkçılıktır. Bu gelişmeler karşısında son yıllarda bazı ülkeler sübvansiyon politikası yerine, tam maliyet fiyatlamasına yönelik önemli adımlar atmaktadır. Bu çalışmayla sübvansiyonların çok dikkat edilmeyen çevresel etkilerini ön plana çıkararak farklı bir sınıflandırma zemini oluşturmak ve dünya genelinde sübvansiyon uygulama sonuçlarını analiz etmek hedeflenmektedir. Analizlerden elde edilen sonuçlara göre, uzun süreli ve çok genel sübvansiyon uygulamaları, aşırı doğal kaynak tüketimi ve artan atık üretimi nedeniyle çevreye zararlı özellikteki sübvansiyonları ortaya çıkarmaktadır.

Kaynakça

  • Acar, Sevil, Lucy Kitson, Richard Bridle (2015), Subsidies to Coal and Renewable Energy in Turkey, Geneva: International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD), Global Subsidies Initiative Report.
  • Amegashie, J. Atsu (2006), The Economics of Subsidies, Crossroads, 6(2), pp.7-15.
  • Andres, Luis A., Michael Thibert, Camilo Lombana Cordoba, Alexander V. Danilenko, George Joseph, and Christian Borja-Vega (2019), Doing More with Less: Smarter Subsidies for Water Supply and Sanitation, Washington: World Bank.
  • Arıkboğa, Ülkü (2019), Çevre Politikasının Ekonomik Araçları ve Türkiye’de Belediye Uygulamaları, Marmara Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, 41(1), ss. 23-50.
  • Arthur, R, S Heyworth, J. Pearce, W. Sharkey (2019), The Cost of Harmful Fishing Subsidies, International Institute for Environment and Development(IIED) Working Paper,London: IIED.
  • Bannon, Eoin (2019), €24bn in Fossil Fuel Subsidies ‘A Perverse Incentive’ for Shipping Pollution, Transport & Environment, https://www.transportenvironment.org/ news/€24bn-fossil-fuel-subsidies-‘-perverse-incentive’-shipping-pollution, (Erişim:6.10.2020)
  • Boone, Laurence (2019), The Time for Reform is Now to Respond to Global Challenges, https://oecdecoscope.blog/2019/07/12/the-time-for-reform-is-now/?print=pdf, (Erişim: 7.05.2021)
  • BP (2020), Statistical Review of World Energy 2020, 69th edition, London.
  • Burniaux, Jean-Marc, Jean Chateau (2014), Greenhouse Gases Mitigation Potential and Economic Efficiency of Phasing-Out Fossil Fuel Subsidies, International Economics, V.140, pp.71–88.
  • Climate Transparency (2019), Brown to Green: The G20 Transition Towards a Net-Zero Emissions Economy, Berlin:
  • Coady, D., Sears L. Parry, B. Shan (2017), How Large Are Global Energy Subsidies?, World Development, V.91, pp.11–27.
  • Çelikkaya, Ali (2017), “Avrupa Birliği Üyesi Ülkelerde Yenilenebilir Enerjiye Sağlanan Teşvikler Üzerine Bir İnceleme”, Sayıştay Dergisi, s.104, ss. 1-26.
  • Dobbs, Richard, Jeremy Oppenheim, Fraser Thompson, Marcel Brinkman, Marc Zornes (2011), Resource Revolution: Meeting the World’s Energy, Materials, Food, and Water Needs, McKinsey Company.
  • El Sobki, M., P. Wooders, Y. Sherif (2009), Clean Energy Investment in Developing Countries: Wind Power in Egypt, Winnipeg: International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD).
  • Estupiñán, Nicolás, Andrés Gómez-Lobo, Ramón Muñoz-Raskin, Tomás Serebrisky (2007), Affordability and Subsidies in Public Urban Transport: What Do We Mean, What Can Be Done?, Washington: The World Bank Latin America and the Caribbean Region Sustainable Development Department.
  • European Environment Agency-EEA (2019), Trends in Mean Summer Chlorophyll-a Concentrations in Europe’s Sea, https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/ figures/trends-in-mean-summer-chlorophyll-a-concentrations-in-europes-seas, (Erişim: 22.11.2020).
  • European Environment Agency-EEA (2007), Size, Structure and Distribution of Transport Subsidies in Europe: EEA Technical Report No:3, Copenhagen.
  • European Commission (2020), Statistical Pocketbook, https://ec.europa.eu/transport/facts-fundings/statistics/pocketbook-2020_en, (Erişim: 1.07.2021).
  • Farah, Paolo Davide, Elena Cima (2015), World Trade Organization, Renewable Energy Subsidies and the Case of Feed-In Tariffs: Time for Reform Toward Sustainable Development?, Georgetown International Environmental Law Review(GIELR), 27(1).
  • GSI (2009), Policy Brief: Achieving the G-20 Call to Phase Out Subsidies to Fossil Fuels,Geneva:
  • Hines, James H. (1998), “Tree Sides of Harberger Triangles”, NABER Working Paper, 6852, https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w6852/w6852.pdf) (Erişim: 02.07.2021).
  • Hogg, Dominic, Mikael Skou Andersen, Tim Elliott, Chris Sherrington, Thomas Vergunst, Sarah Ettlinger, Laurence Elliott, Joe Hudson (2014), Study on Environmental Fiscal Reform Potential in 12 EU Member States, AARHUS University and Eunomia.
  • IEA (2010), World Energy Outlook 2010, Paris.
  • IEA (2002), Electricity in India: Providing Power for the Millions. Paris.
  • IEA (1999), World Energy Outlook Insights, looking at Energy Subsidies: Getting the Prices Right, Paris.
  • Jellema, Jon, Nora Lustig, Astrid Haas, Sebastian Wolf (2016), The impact of taxes, transfers, and subsidies on inequality and poverty in Uganda, London: International Growth Centre.
  • Kahriman Hanbay, Esra (2020), “Küresel İklim Değişikliğinin Olumlu ve Olumsuz Dışsallıkları Üzerine Bir Değerlendirme”, Sayıştay Dergisi, 33(118), ss. 101-131.
  • Kjellingbro, Peter Marcus, Maria Skotte (2005), Environmentally Harmful Subsidies–Linkages Between Subsidies, the Environment and the Economy, Copenhagen: Environmental Assessment Institute.
  • Kotan, Özge (2015), DTÖ Müzakereleri Kapsamında Balıkçılık Sübvansiyonu Uygulamaları ve Türkiye’nin Tutumu, Avrupa Birliği Uzmanlık Tezi. Ankara.
  • Lin, Boqiang, Zhujun Jiang (2011), Estimates of Energy Subsidies in China and Impact of Energy Subsidy Reform, Energy Economics, 33(2), pp.273-283.
  • Mayand, Karel, Stéphanie Dionne, Marc Paquin, Isaak Pageot-LeBel (2003), The Economic and Environmental Impacts of Agricultural Subsidies: An Assessment of the 2002 US Farm Bill&Doha Round, Montreal.
  • Meyer, Sozialwirt Christian, Sebastian Schmidt, Bettina Meyer, Kai Schlegelmilch, Martin Schlereth (2009), Environmentally Harmful Subsidies: How Perverse Financial Incentives Threaten Biodiversity, Munich.
  • Milazzo, Matteo (1998), Subsidies in World Fisheries: A Re-Examination, Washington: World Bank Technical Paper. No. 406. Fisheries series.
  • Mohring, Herbert (1972), Optimization and Scale Economies in Urban Bus Transportation, The American Economic Review, 62(4), pp.591-604.
  • Morgan, Trevor (2007), Energy Subsidies: Their Magnitude, How They Affect Energy Investment and Greenhouse Gas Emissions, and Prospects for Reform, UNFCCC Secretariat Financial and Technical Support Programme.
  • Mullen, Katheleen, Dongsheng Sun, David Orden and Ashok Gulati (2004), Producer Support Estimates (PSEs) for Agriculture In Developing Countries: Measurement Issues and Illustrations from India and China, Washington D.C.: International Food Policy Research Institute.
  • Myers, Norman (2007), Perverse Subsidies, Inter Press Services, http://www.ipsnews. net/2007/08/perverse-subsidies (Erişim: 6.10.2020).
  • Myers, Norman ve Jennifer Kent (2001), Perverse Subsidies: How Tax Dollars Can Undercut the Environment and The Economy, Washington: Island Press.
  • Nedzel, Nadia E. (2018), “Subsidies”, Encyclopedia of Business Ethics and Society, R.W. Kolb(ed.), Thousand Oaks: Sage, pp.3291-3296.
  • O’Brien, Robert (1997), Subsidy Regulation and State Transformation in North America, the GATT and the EU, New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • OECD (2020a), Producer and Consumer Support Estimates, OECD Agriculture statistics (database), http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/agr-pcse-data-en (Erişim: 15.05.2021).
  • OECD (2020b), Govenrment Financial Transfers, Fisheries and Agriculture Statistics, (database), https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=FISH_GFT# (Erişim: 15.05.2021).
  • OECD (2019), Uncertain Global Economy Should Prompt Governments to Embark on Reforms That Boost Sustainable Growth, Raise Incomes and Increase Opportunities for All, OECD Press Release, 12/07/2019.
  • OECD (2017), Agricultural Policy Monitoring and Evaluation 2017, Paris.
  • OECD (2016), Review of Fisheries: Country Statistics 2015, Paris.
  • OECD (2010), Green Growth Strategy Interim Report: Implementing Our Commitment to a Sustainable Future. Paris.
  • OECD (2005), Environmentally Harmful Subsidies: Challenges for Reform, Paris.
  • OECD (2003a), Environmentally Harmful Subsidies: Policy Issues and Challenges, Paris.
  • OECD (2003b), Agricultural Trade and Poverty: Making Policy Analysis Count, Paris:Clearance Center.
  • Parkin, Michael, Melanie Powell, Kent Matthews (2005), Economics, (7th ed.), Harlow: Pearson-Addison Wesley.
  • Pauly, Daniel, Villy Christensen, Sylvie Guénette, Tony J. Pitcher, U. Rashid Sumaila, Carl J. Walters, R. Watson, Dirk Zeller (2002), Towards Sustainability in World Fisheries, Nature, V. 418.
  • Pearce, David (2003), “Environmentally Harmful Subsidies: Barriers to Sustainable Development”, Environmentally Harmful Subsidies: Policy Issues and Challenges, OECD (eds.), Paris, pp.9-30.
  • Pekin, Tevfik (1974), Teşvik Tedbiri Olarak Sübvansiyonlar ve İşletme Kararları Üzerindeki Etkileri, Bornova: Ege Üniversitesi Yayınları No:202.
  • Plunkett, H., R Wilson, S. Argy (1992), The Measurement of Effective Rates of Assistance in Australia, OECD Industry Commission Working Paper No.4, Belconnen.
  • Rands, Gordon P., Pamela J. Rands (2018), “Energy Sources”, Encyclopedia of Business Ethics and Society, R.W. Kolb, (eds), Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, pp.1126-1137.
  • Saunders, S., K. Schneider (2000), Removing Energy Subsidies in Developing and Transition Economies, ABARE, Conference Paper presented at 23rd Annual IAEE International Conference, Sydney.
  • Steenblik, Ronald P. (2003), “Subsidy Measurement and Classification: Developing A Common Framework”, OECD Workshop on Environmentally Harmful Subsidies: Policy Issues and Challenges, 7-8 November, Paris.
  • Steenblik, Ronald P. (1995), A Note on the Concept of Subsidy, Energy Policy, 23, pp.478- 492.
  • Steenblik, Ronald P., Kenneth J. Wigley (1990), “Coal Policies and Trade Barriers”, Energy Policy, 18(5), pp.351-367.
  • Strokov, Sergei, William H. Meyers (1996), Producer Subsidy Equivalents and Evaluation of Support to Russian Agricultural Producers, Iowa State University Center for Agricultural and Rural Development, Working Paper 96-WP 168, Ames.
  • Sumaila, U. Rashid, D. Pauly (2006), Catching More Bait: A Bottom-up Re-estimation of Global Fisheries Subsidies. Vancouver: University of British Columbia, Fisheries Center Research Report, 14(6).
  • T.C. Ticaret Bakanlığı, Sübvansiyonlar ve Telafi Edici Tedbirler Anlaşması, Bölüm I: Genel Hükümler.
  • UNEP (2008), Reforming Energy Subsidies: Opportunities to Contribute to the Climate Change Agenda, Geneva.
  • Uluatam, Özhan (2012), Kamu Maliyesi, 7.B., Ankara: İmaj Yayıncılık.
  • Von Moltke, A., C. McKee, T. Morgan (2004), Energy Subsidies: Lessons Learned in Assessing their Impact and Designing Policy Reforms, Sheffield: Greenleaf.
  • Watkins, Thayer (2021). The Impact of an Excise Tax or Subsidy on Price, San José State University Department of Economics. https://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/ taximpact.htm (Erişim: 30.03.2021).
  • World Bank (2012a), Inclusive Green Growth: The Pathway to Sustainable Development, Washington.
  • World Bank (2012b), The Real Cost of Fossil Fuels. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/ feature/2012/05/09/real-costs-fossil-fuel-subsidies (Erişim:02.10.2020).
  • World Trade Organization (2019), WTO Contribution to the 2019 High Level Political Forum.
  • World Trade Organization (2006), World Trade Report 2006: Exploring the Links between Subsidies, Trade and the WTO, Geneva.
  • Xu, Ping, Weiyu Wang, Chunxia Wei (2018), “Economic and Environmental Effects of Public Transport Subsidy Policies: A Spatial CGE Model of Beijing”, Mathematical Problems in Engineering.
Toplam 71 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil Türkçe
Konular Ekonomi
Bölüm Araştırma Makaleleri
Yazarlar

Hakan Akar Bu kişi benim 0000-0002-2145-5894

Filiz Giray Bu kişi benim 0000-0002-8765-8248

Yayımlanma Tarihi 8 Temmuz 2021
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2021 Sayı: 121

Kaynak Göster

APA Akar, H., & Giray, F. (2021). SÜBVANSİYONLARA FARKLI BİR BAKIŞ: ÇEVREYE ZARARLI SÜBVANSİYONLAR VE SEKTÖREL UYGULAMALARI. Sayıştay Dergisi, 32(121), 65-97. https://doi.org/10.52836/sayistay.966588