Published October 21, 2018 | Version v1
Journal article Open

Cyber-Sexual Violence and Negative Emotional States among Women in a Canadian University

  • 1. University of Toronto, Canada

Contributors

  • 1. International Journal of Cyber Criminology

Description

Cyber-sexual violence refers to a form of harmful sexually aggressive behaviors committed with the facilitation of digital technologies. Such harmful behaviors can include non-consensual pornography and other image-based sexual exploitation, online sexual harassment, cyber-stalking, online gender-based hate speech, and the use of a carriage service to arrange/attempt to arrange a victims sexual assault. This article examines the cyber-sexual violence experiences reported by a sample of women on university campuses in Ontario, Canada. Specifically, this study documented the types and forms of cyber-sexual violence that female university students have experienced, whether they disclosed the incidents and their association with negative health emotional states. This study provided evidence indicating that experiences of cyber-sexual violence are associated with symptoms of depression, anxiety, stress, and posttraumatic reactions, regardless of individuals disclosure experiences. In light of these findings it is crucial that service providers and legislative initiative begin to adapt to the changing technological nature of crimes against women.

Files

Cripps&StermacVol12Issue1IJCC2018.pdf

Files (577.5 kB)

Name Size Download all
md5:440630c4883701636eb4e28ab25790fa
577.5 kB Preview Download

Additional details

References

  • American College Health Association. (2015). American College Health Association-National College Health Assessment II: Reference Group Executive Summary Spring 2015. Hanover, MD: American College Health Association. Bachman, R. (1998). The factors related to rape reporting behavior and arrest: New evidence from the National Crime Victimization Survey. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 25, 8–29. Ballard, M. E., & Welch, K. M. (2017). Virtual warfare. Games and Culture, 12(5), 466–491. Barak, A. (2005). Sexual harassment on the Internet. Social Science Computer Review, 23, 77–92. Baumgartner, S. E., Valkenburg, P. M., & Peter, J. (2010). Unwanted online sexual solicitation and risky sexual online behaviour the lifespan. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 31, 439–447. Beech, A. R., Elliott, I. A., Birgden, A., & Findlater, D. (2008). The internet and child sexual grooming: A criminological review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 13, 216–228. Biber, J. K., Doverspike, D., Baznik, D., Cober, A. & Ritter, B. A. (2002). Sexual harassment in online communications: Effects of gender and disclosure medium. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 5(1), 33–42. Borja, S. E., Callahan, J. L., & Long, P. (2006). Positive and negative adjustment and social support of sexual assault survivors. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 19, 905–914. Bossler, A. M., Holt, T. J., & May, D. C. (2012). Predicting onlineharassment victimization among a juvenile population. Youth & Society, 44, 500–523. Boyd, C. (2009). Virtual violence. Australian Institute of Family Studies, 21, 5–8. Retrieved from http://www.aifs.gov.au/acssa/pubs/newsletter/n21pdf/n21c.pdf. Broman-Fulks, J., Ruggiero, K., Hanson, R., Smith, D., Resnick, H., Kilpatrick, D., et al. (2007). Sexual assault disclosure in relation to adolescent mental health: Results from the National Survey of Adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 36, 260–266. Brown, E. J., & Heimberg, R. G. (2001). Effects of writing about rape: Evaluating Pennebaker's paradigm of a severe trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 14, 781–790. Bryant-Davis, T., Chung, H., Tillman, S., & Belcourt, A. (2009). From the margins to the center: Ethnic minority women and the mental health effects of sexual assault. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 10(4), 330–357. Burke, S. C., Wallen, M., Vail-Smith, K., & Knox, D. (2011). Using technology to control intimate partners: An exploratory study of college undergraduates. Computers in Human Behavior, 27, 1162–1167. Campbell, R., Ahrens, C. E., Sefl, T., Wasco, S. M., & Barnes, H. E. (2001). Social reactions to sexual assault victims: Healing and hurtful effects on psychological and physical health outcomes. Violence and Victims, 16, 287–302. Campbell, R., & Raja, S. (1999). Secondary victimization of rape victims: Insights from mental health professionals who treat survivors of violence. and physical health outcomes. Violence and Victims, 14, 261-275. Citron, D. K., & Franks, M. A. (2014). Criminalizing revenge porn. Wake Forest Law Review, 49, 345–391. Craven, S., Brown, S., & Gilchrist, E. (2006). Sexual grooming of children: Review of literature and theoretical considerations. Journal of Sexual Aggression, 12, 287–299. Cyber Civil Rights Initiative. (2013)."Effects of revenge porn" Survey. Retrieved from http://www.endrevengeporn.org/revenge-porn-infographic. Davis, R. C., Birckman, R., & Baker, T. (1991). Supportive and unsupportive responses of others to rape victims: Effects on concurrent adjustment. American Journal of Community Psychology, 19, 443–451. Dibbell, J. (1998). A rape in cyberspace. Retrieved from http://www.juliandibbell.com/texts/bungle.html. DreBing, H., Bailer, J., Anders, A., Wagner, H., & Gallas, C. (2014). Cyberstalking in a large sample of social network users: Prevalence, characteristics, and impact upon victims. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 17, 61–67. Finn, J. (2004). A survey of online harassment at a university campus. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 19, 468–483. Finn, J., &Banach, M. (2000). Victimization online: The down side of seeking human services for women on the Internet. CyberPsychology & Behaviour, 3, 243–254. Griffiths, M. (2000). Excessive internet use: Implications for sexual behavior. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 3(4), 537–552. Guichard, A. (2009). Hate crime in cyberspace: The challenges of substantive criminal law. Information & Communications Technology Law, 18, 201–234. Hazelwood, S. D., & Koon-Magnin, S. (2013). Cyber stalking and cyber harassment legislation in the United States: A qualitative analysis. International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 7(2), 155–168. Henry, J. D., & Crawford, J. R. (2005). The short-form version of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21): Construct validity and normative data in a large non-clinical sample. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 44(2), 227–239. Henry, N., & Powell, A. (2014). The dark side of the virtual world: Towards a digital sexual ethics. In N. Henry & A. Powell (Eds.), Preventing sexual violence: Interdisciplinary approaches to overcoming a rape culture. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. Henry, N., & Powell, A. (2015). Embodied harms: Gender, shame, and technology-facilitated sexual violence. Violence Against Women, 21(6), 758–779. Henry, N., & Powell, A. (2016). Technology-facilitated sexual violence: A literature review of empirical research. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 17, 1–14. Kearns, M. C., Edwards, K. M., Calhoun, K. S., &Gidycz, C. A. (2010). Disclosure of sexual victimization: The effects of Pennebaker's Emotional disclosure paradigm on physical and psychological distress. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 11, 193–209. Koss, M. P., Gidycz, C. A., & Wisnieski, N. (1987). The scope of rape: Incidence and prevalence of sexual aggression and victimization in a national sample of higher education students. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55(2), 162–170. Lee, E., & Leets, L. (2002). Persuasive storytelling by hate groups online: Examining its effects on adolescents. American Behavioral Scientist, 45, 927–957. Littleton, H. L., & RadeckiBreitkopf, C. (2006). Coping with the experience of rape. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30, 106–116. Meyer, R., & Cukier, M. (2006). Assessing the attack threat due to IRC channels. Proceedings of the International Conference on Dependable Systems and Networks. www.enre.umd.edu/content/rmeyer-assessing.pdf. Mitchell, K. J., Finkelhor, D., Wolak, J., Ybarra, M. L., & Turner, H. (2011). Youth internet victimization in a broader victimization context. Journal of Adolescent Health, 48(2), 128–134. Nobles, M. R., Reyns, B. W., Fox, K. A., & Fisher, B. S. (2014). Protection against pursuit: A conceptual and empirical comparison of cyberstalking and stalking victimization among a national sample. Justice Quarterly, 31(6), 986–1014. Nussbaum, M. C. (2010). Objectification and Internet misogyny. In S. Levmore & M. C. Nussbaum (Eds.), The offensive Internet: Speech, privacy, and reputation (pp. 68-90). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Ontario Women's Directorate. (2013). Developing a response to sexual violence: A resource guide for Ontario's colleges and universities. Retrieved from http://www.women.gov.on.ca/owd/docs/campus_guide.pdf. Orchowski, L. M., & Gidycz, C. A. (2015). Psychological consequences associated with positive and negative responses to disclosure of sexual assault among college women: A prospective study. Violence Against Women, 21(7), 803–823. Pearce, M. E., Blair, A. H., Teegee, M., Pan, S. W., Thomas, V., Zhang, H., Schechter, M. T., & Spittal, P. M. (2015). The cedar project: Historical trauma and vulnerability to sexual assault among young aboriginal women who use illicit drugs in two Canadian cities. Violence Against Women, 21(3), 313–329. Pennebaker, J. W., & Francis, M. E. (1996). Cognitive, emotional, and language processes in disclosure. Cognition and Emotion, 10(6), 601–626. Pew Research Center. (2014). Online harassment. Retrieved from http://www.pewinternet.org/2014/10/22/online-harassment. Reyns, B. W., Henson, B., & Fisher, B. S. (2012). Stalking in the twilight zone: Extent of cyberstalking victimization and offending among college students. Deviant Behavior, 33, 1–25. Spitzberg, B. H., & Hoobler, G. (2002). Cyberstalking and technologies of interpersonal terrorism. New Media Society, 4, 71–92. Statistics Canada. (2006). Measuring violence against women: Statistical trends 2006. Statistics Canada Catalogue no. 85-570-XIE. Statistics Canada. (2011). Self-reported Internet victimization in Canada, 2009. Statistics Canada Catalogue no. 85-002-X. Staude-Müller, F., Hansen, B., & Voss, M. (2012). How stressful is online victimisation? Effects of victim's personality and properties of the incident. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 9, 260–274. Stermac, L., Cripps, J., & Badali, V. (Submitted). Women's experiences of stalking on campus: Behaviour changes and access to university resources. Canadian Women Studies. Thompson, M. P., & Morrison, D. J. (2013). Prospective predictors of technology-based sexual coercion by college males. Psychology of Violence, 3(3), 233–246. Tjaden, P., & Thoennes, N. (2000). Full report of the prevalence, incidence, and consequences of violence against women: Findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey. (No. NCJ183781). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice. Ullman, S. E. (1996a). Correlates and consequences of adult sexual assault disclosure. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 11, 554–571. Ullman, S. E. (1996b). Do social reactions to sexual assault victims vary by support provider? Violence and Victims, 11, 143–156. Ullman, S. E. (1996c). Social reactions, coping strategies, and self-blame attributions in adjustment to sexual assault. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20, 505–526. Ullman, S. E. (2000). Psychometric characteristics of the Social Reactions Questionnaire. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 24, 257–271. Ullman, S. E., &Filipas, H. H. (2001). Predictors of PTSD symptom severity and social reactions in sexual assault victims. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 14, 369-389. Ullman, S. E., Filipas, H. H., Townsend, S. M., &Starzynski, L. L. (2007). Psychosocial correlates of PTSD symptom severity in sexual assault survivors. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 20, 821–831. Ullman, S. E., Starzynski, L. L., Long, S. M., Mason, G. E., & Long, L. M. (2008). Exploring the relationships of women's sexual assault disclosure, social reactions and problem drinking. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23, 1235–1257. Ullman, S. E., Townsend, S. M., Filipas, H. H., & Starzynski, L. L. (2007). Structural models of the relations of assault severity, social support, avoidance coping, self-blame, and PTSD among sexual assault survivors. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31, 23–37. Weathers, F. W., Litz, B. T., Herman, D. S., Huska, J. A., Keane, T. M. (1993). The PTSD Checklist (PCL): Reliability, validity, and diagnostic utility. Paper presented at the 9th Annual Conference of the ISTSS, San Antonio, TX. Retrieved from http://www.pdhealth.mil/library/downloads/PCL_sychometrics.doc. Ybarra, M. L., Espelage, D. L., & Mitchell, K. J. (2007). The co-occurrence of internet harassment and unwanted sexual solicitation victimization and perpetration: Associations with psychosocial indicators. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, S31–S41. Ybarra, M. L., & Mitchell, K. J. (2008). How risky are social networking sites? A comparison of places online where youth sexual solicitation and harassment occurs. Pediatrics, 121, 350–357.