Abstract
Three experiments examined the effectiveness of external retrieval cues when encoding context varied with respect to the integration of the representation. In all three experiments, it was found that nonencoded cues led to greater improvement if the initial representation was not well integrated. Strong-associate cues led to more improvement when encoding context consisted of weak-associate pairs than when the pairs were embedded in sentences (Experiment 1). The cues were more effective when subjects studied a list of words without instructions than when they were instructed to form images integrating the list members (Experiment 2). The third experiment demonstrated that well integrated material takes longer to access, and a control experiment argued against an encoding interpretation of the data. The results demonstrated both a flexibility of retrieval and a restriction from context, such that the better the representation, the harder it is to retrieve using external retrieval cues.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
References
Baker, L., &Santa, J. L. Semantic integration and context.Memory & Cognition, 1977,5, 151–154.
Bilodeau, E. A., &Howell, D. C.Free association norms. (Catalog No. D210.2:F87) Washington, D.C: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1965.
Birch, H. G., &Rabinowitz, H. S. The negative effect of previous experience of productive thinking.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1951,41, 121–125.
Bousfield, W. A. The occurrence of clustering in the recall of randomly arranged associates.Journal of General Psychology, 1953,49, 229–240.
Bower, G. H., Lesgold, A. M., &Tieman, D. G. Grouping operations in free recall.Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1969,8, 481–493.
Ciccone, D. S., &Brelsford, J. W. Encoding specificity: The processing of stimulus attributes.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 1975,1, 60–64.
Hunt, R. R., &Ellis, H. D. Recognition memory and degree of semantic contextual change.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1974,103, 1153–1159.
Jacoby, L. L. Effects of organization on recognition memory.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1972,92, 325–331.
Light, L. L., &Carter-Sobell, L. Effects of changed semantic context on recognition memory.Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1970,9, 1–11.
Mandler, G. Organization and memory. In K. W. Spence and J. T. Spence (Eds.),The psychology of learning and motivation. New York: Academic Press, 1967.
Pompi, K. F., &Lachman, R. Surrogate processes in the short-term retention of connected discourse.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1967,75, 143–150.
Santa, J. L., &Lamwers, L. L. Encoding specificity: Fact or artifact.Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1974,13, 412–423.
Santa, J. L., &Lamwers, L. L. Where does the confusion lie?: Comments on the Wiseman and Tulving paper.Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1976,15, 53–57.
Thomsos, D. M., &Tulving, E. Associative encoding and retrieval: Weak and strong cues.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1970,86, 255–262.
Tulving, E. Episodic and semantic memory. In E. Tulving and W. Donaldson (Eds.),Organization of memory. New York: Academic Press, 1972.
Tulving, E., &Osler, S. Effectiveness of retrieval cues in memory for words.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1968,77, 593–601.
Tulving, E., &Thomson, D. M. Retrieval processes in recognition memory: Effects of associative context.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1971,87, 116–124.
Tulving, E., &Thomson, D. M. Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory.Psychological Review, 1973,80, 352–373.
Winograd, E., Karchmer, M. A., &Russell, I. S. Role of encoding unitization in cued recognition memory.Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1971,10, 199–206.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Additional information
This research was in part supported by Rutgers Research Council grants to the second author. We wish to express our appreciation to Linda L. Lamwers for her assistance throughout this work. Experiments 1 and 2 were first reported at the Eastern Psychological Association meetings in 1975, and Experiment 3 was reported at the 1976 EPA meetings.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Baker, L., Santa, J.L. Context, integration, and retrieval. Memory & Cognition 5, 308–314 (1977). https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03197575
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03197575