Urban Agriculture as a Means to Food Sovereignty? A Case Study of Baltimore City Residents
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Theoretical Considerations
1.1.1. Food Deserts, Food Apartheid, and Food Sovereignty
1.1.2. Alternative Food Network Solutions
1.2. Current Study
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area: Baltimore, MD, as a Case Study
2.2. Participants and Recruitment
2.3. Interviews
2.4. Coding and Data Analysis
2.5. Methodological Integrity
3. Results
3.1. Food Access Inequality
3.1.1. Systematic Racism
We didn’t just wake up one day and arrive at food insecurity, income insecurity, no jobs, and a lack of access to quality food…we have the intersection of quite a few pandemics at one time now. But the real pandemic is American apartheid, segregation, inequality, and racism. America has been in crisis for 400 years.(Saundra, Academic)
The planning of the city was no accident …in the 1880s, it was one of the first cities in the U.S. to do really explicit racialized zoning, and the Baltimore today that we have is a result of that…We were complicit, as urban planners, in redlining. The way our cities look is a direct result of urban planning. Not to say urban planners are all racist, but it is to say that we have been using a toolkit specifically designed by the white supremacist regime to segregate, to separate, to discriminate, to differentiate.(Rodney, Academic)
Food apartheid is intentional violence—physical, emotional, mental violence towards Black and brown people…it makes it hard for people to eat healthy produce, to grow healthy produce, and to be paid a living wage for their work.(Rosslyn, Farmer)
What attracts a supermarket in the area…is the income that people have…and if there’s other businesses around. And…in Baltimore, if there’s a high concentration of Black people, there’s really not that many businesses; there’s only corner stores, there’s only liquor stores, and it doesn’t really attract any businesses but those.(Monica, Food Equity Advisor)
3.1.2. Affordability
There’s only one store [close by] that accepts EBT. There’s three different corner stores on my block, so the one store that does accept EBT has a little bit of fresh produce…they just don’t have the refrigeration.(Monica, Food Equity Advisor)
The issue remains of…how does a person without financial…resources get food? And learn where [it] really comes from and how to grow it, so they’re not dependent upon fast food?(Paula, Farmer)
Sometimes there are substandard supermarkets close to where you live, so you go to those substandard supermarkets and you’ll buy food. I’ve been to supermarkets where you walk in and they smell, and I would not buy anything, but then I look around and there’s so many people in there because they have no choice. This is the closest thing to them, they have to buy there; they don’t have anywhere else to go.(Esther, Food Equity Advisor)
I’ve noticed that a lot of low-income markets are cheaper and more reasonable.…[but they] don’t care about [your] health. And a lot of high-priced markets that have good quality and fresh vegetables…do care about your health…but it’s too expensive. There’s a Whole Foods…[where] a pack of hot dogs, the cheapest is $3.99. And at Price Rite or Save-a-Lot you get them for 99 cents. So if you want quality, you have to go with the high price.(Sasha, Food Equity Advisor)
3.1.3. Distance to Healthy Food
Up until ten or twelve years ago when I lost my legs, I had a car, so it meant nothing to go here, there, and everywhere to get food…I didn’t think about other people and their hardships until only a couple of years ago…the challenges were different…seeing the senior citizens or people with disabilities trying to navigate to a store, and the store is where? More than a mile away.(Esther, Food Equity Advisor)
Where our farm is [located], the closest supermarket is at least a mile, maybe two or three. So…an elderly person is taking two buses…it’s their whole day to get to a supermarket. Or they’re paying someone an exorbitant amount of money out of their budget…to go pick up stuff because they can’t. It’s inconvenient for them to get to the store.(Tyler, Farmer)
Most of Baltimore’s food is imported. It comes from California, Miami, outside of the country and the surrounding counties…so we have to find a way to decentralize the distribution, decentralize the storage, and decentralize the processing. If we are able to do that on our farm, then we’ll be able to create our own food, create our own work, [and] manage our own resources.(Jimmy, Farmer)
3.2. Community Empowerment
3.2.1. Community Control
There’s a lot of soil, there’s a lot of abandoned houses in Baltimore City. Tear them down, make a little garden where you plant food, and have the neighbors tend to it, and then when it’s time for harvest, everyone can get it for free. It’s a little far-fetched, but it can happen. If people wanted to eat and eat good, there are vegetables and fruits that we could plant right here in Baltimore that would be successful, but everybody would have to want to come together and participate.(Esther, Food Equity Advisor)
I met this guy who had just…adopted a vacant lot around the corner from my house… and I was like, oh, that’s very cool…I just sort of took over…and now I have a community garden here that I run…With COVID, all of a sudden we had all this time and this property…We said, ”Let’s just go there every day and work and do it and…anybody who wants to come and join and help us grow can.” But also, people are allowed to take food whether or not they help us grow it.(Lauren, Farmer)
There is a program where they go to schools and teach the children how to prepare certain meals with vegetables the kids have probably never even heard of, like zucchini. Some children have never seen what a zucchini looks like, but there is a program where they…teach them how to cook it…then you give them some to take home so they can show their parents how to cook it…teach them while their minds are open and they’re willing to try something new.(Esther, Food Equity Advisor)
Urban farms serve as a nucleus in communities when you talk about food security, bringing people together, and…addressing trauma. I really think urban farmers and administrators should go above and beyond by providing support for young people to be involved in urban farming…What we’re doing is we’re creating our own work, managing our own resources, and we are feeding security by growing food with children for everyone in our community.(Jimmy, Famer)
3.2.2. Instrumental Support
Our farm partnered with a community organization and supplemented some of the boxes that people were getting with like, collards, tomatoes, peaches, all free of cost. So we grow all our food and we donate it all to people. We don’t have any fences around our property, so neighbors can come and go as they please, taking what they want.(Tyler, Farmer)
3.3. Health Promotion
We’ve got to look to nutrition because it is the contributor to life opportunities…it’s a contributor to lifespan and quality of life, and in BIPOC (The term POC refers to “people of color,” individuals in the United States of African, Asian, Latin American, Middle Eastern, Arab, and/or Indigenous descent. BIPOC highlights specific intersections within POC groups, mainly the unique relationships Indigenous and Black (African American) people have within a U.S. context) communities that quality of life, that lifespan, that ability to get on is compromised in many ways because of nutritional issues.(Rodney, Academic)
I started doing health and wellness education over 20 years ago, just teaching people cancer prevention…and I realized a lot of information we were given wasn’t really focused on food, and that’s the main cause…doing more research into food as medicine became a big focus for me.(Anita, Farmer)
Now a lot of people are getting those produce boxes and they are filled with things that people just are not familiar with using on a regular basis or at all. And I think that that’s the challenge, it’s the education…I’m even seeing people post like, “What is this? What am I supposed to do with this?” And I think that there’s a huge disconnect. I mean, it’s great that the food’s getting to the communities but it would waste and sit in a lot of refrigerators for months.(Anita, Farmer)
I got people that I lost to diet-related illnesses, related to just being…Black in America. And I wanted to address it…[and] do what I could, whether that’s making produce more affordable or…being able to grow nutritious, organic food for people…that’s what keeps me going…I got family members to this day dealing with health challenges…and I know a bunch of kale can’t save the world, but maybe if they ate a little healthier, the longer they would be in my life.(Rosslyn, Farmer)
3.4. Environmental Sustainability
I have a friend who was interested in permaculture which is a type of…farming that mimics how natural systems work. And so that got me thinking, if we could farm in a way that was sustainable, inspired by nature, and has reverence for nature, then maybe I could be into farming, because it wouldn’t just be depleting all of our natural resources. And then we started…the idea was what if we could actually grow food, like directly next to the people…cutting out travel and fossil fuels from the systems, because a lot of the studies that we had seen said that the biggest impact is how far our food traveled…that would be doing something amazing for your carbon footprint.(Lauren, Farmer)
The Cherry Hill Urban Farm is very close to the incinerator. It’s an impoverished, isolated part of the city. And [a worker] at Baltimore Compost Collective is engaging youth to build compost and collect food scraps from some of the wealthier neighborhoods that are paying for that service. And then they make compost with it. And it goes into…Filbert Street Garden. And everything over there in the Curtis Bay neighborhood is revolving around this political movement—this outcry, public outcry, to shut down this trash incinerator, for better air quality.(Rich, Farmer)
Where the garden is located is one of the most toxic communities in Baltimore City. It has two incinerators… [and] historically it’s been a dumping ground. When you burn trash, you create a chemical called carbon dioxide. When you bury trash, you create a chemical called methane, which causes $55 million in health damages for the residents of Baltimore City. They put these incinerators in poor neighborhoods but the wind doesn’t segregate or discriminate. So we’re all breathing in bad air…We know that the alternative to incineration is composting, so we’re…blessed to be a model for composting for Baltimore City.(Phil, Farmer)
3.5. Thematic Summary
4. Discussion
Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Ball, K.; Crawford, D.; Mishra, G. Socio-economic Inequalities in Women’s Fruit and Vegetable Intakes: A Multilevel Study of Individual, Social and Environmental Mediators. Public Health Nutr. 2006, 9, 623–630. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Franco, M.; Diez-Roux, A.V.; Nettleton, J.A.; Lazo, M.; Brancati, F.; Caballero, B.; Glass, T.; Moore, L.V. Availability of Healthy Foods and Dietary Patterns: The Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2009, 89, 897–904. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Moore, L.; Diez Roux, A.V.; Nettleton, J.A.; Jacobs, D.R. Associations of the Local Food Environment with Diet Quality—A Comparison of Assessments based on Surveys and Geographic Information Systems. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2008, 167, 917–924. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Pearce, J.; Witten, K.; Hiscock, R.; Blakely, T. Regional and Urban–Rural Variations in the Association of Neighbourhood Deprivation with Community Resource Access: A National Study. Environ. Plan. A 2008, 40, 2469–2489. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rose, D.; Hutchinson, P.L.; Bodor, J.N.; Swalm, C.M.; Farley, T.A.; Cohen, D.A.; Rice, J.C. Neighborhood Food Environments and Body Mass Index: The Importance of In-Store Contents. Am. J. Prev. Med. 2009, 37, 214–219. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Zenk, S.N.; Lachance, L.L.; Schulz, A.J.; Mentz, G.; Kannan, S.; Ridella, W. Neighborhood Retail Food Environment and Fruit and Vegetable Intake in a Multiethnic Urban Population. Am. J. Health Promot. 2009, 23, 255–264. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Beaulac, J.; Kristjansson, E.; Cummins, S. A Systematic Review of Food Deserts, 1966-2007. Prev. Chronic Dis. 2009, 6, A105. [Google Scholar]
- Larson, N.I.; Story, M.T.; Nelson, M.C. Neighborhood Environments Disparities in Access to Healthy Foods in the US. Am. J. Prev. Med. 2009, 36, 74–81. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Baker, E.A.; Schootman, M.; Barnidge, E.; Kelly, C. The Role of Race and Poverty in Access to Foods that Enable Individuals to Adhere to Dietary Guidelines. Prev. Chronic Dis. 2006, 3, A76. [Google Scholar]
- Cummins, S.; Smith, D.M.; Taylor, M.; Dawson, J.; Marshall, D.; Sparks, L.; Anderson, A.S. Variations in Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Quality by Store Type, Urban-Rural Setting and Neighbourhood Deprivation in Scotland. Public Health Nutr. 2009, 12, 2044–2050. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Zenk, S.N.; Schulz, A.J.; Israel, B.A.; James, S.A.; Bao, S.; Wilson, M.L. Fruit and Vegetable Access Differs by Community Racial Composition and Socioeconomic Position in Detroit, Michigan. Ethn. Dis. 2006, 16, 275–280. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Odoms-Young, A.M. Examining the Impact of Structural Racism on Food Insecurity Implications for Addressing Racial/Ethnic Disparities. Fam. Community Health 2018, 41, S3–S6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Steenkamp, J.; Cilliers, E.J.; Cilliers, S.S.; Lategan, L. Food for Thought: Addressing Urban Food Security Risks through Urban Agriculture. Sustainability 2021, 13, 1267. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cummins, S.; Flint, E.; Matthews, S.A. New Neighborhood Grocery Store Increased Awareness of Food Access but Did Not Alter Dietary Habits or Obesity. Health Aff. 2014, 33, 283–291. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ghosh-Dastidar, M.; Hunter, G.; Collins, R.L.; Zenk, S.N.; Cummins, S.; Beckman, R.; Nugroho, A.K.; Sloan, J.C.; Wagner, L.; Dubowitz, T. Does Opening a Supermarket in a Food Desert Change the Food Environment? Health Place 2017, 46, 249–256. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- The Baltimore Sun. Available online: https://www.baltimoresun.com/politics/bs-md-pol-lyft-grocery-access-20191118-6wf65ioac5dh5hwjcq3trxzmsm-story.html (accessed on 11 May 2022).
- Beaumont, J.; Lang, T.; Leather, S.; Mucklow, C. Report from the Policy Sub-group to the Nutrition Task Force Low Income Project Team of the Department of Health; Institute of Grocery Distribution: Radlett, UK, 1995. [Google Scholar]
- McKinnon, R.A.; Reedy, J.; Morrissette, M.A.; Lytle, L.A.; Yaroch, A.L. Measures of the Food Environment: A Compilation of the Literature, 1990-2007. Am. J. Prev. Med. 2009, 36, S124–S133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Walker, R.E.; Keane, C.R.; Burke, J.G. Disparities and Access to Healthy Food in the United States. Health Place 2010, 16, 876884. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vozoris, N.T.; Tarasuk, V.S. Household Food Insufficiency is Associated with Poorer Health. J. Nutr. 2003, 133, 120–126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Cummins, S.; Macintyre, S. “Food Deserts”— Evidence and Assumption in Health Policy Making. BMJ 2002, 325, 436–438. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Black, S.T. Abolitionist Food Justice: Theories of Change Rooted in Place and Life Making. Food Foodways 2022, 30, 123–141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reese, A.M. Black Food Geographies: Race, Self-Reliance, and Food Access in Washington, D.C.; The University of North Carolina Press: Chapel Hill, NC, USA, 2019; pp. 44–68. [Google Scholar]
- Karen Washington: It’s Not a Food Desert, It’s Food Apartheid. Available online: https://www.guernicamag.com/karen-washington-its-not-a-food-desert-its-food-apartheid (accessed on 10 June 2022).
- Gallegos, D.; Chilton, M.M. Re-Evaluating Expertise: Principles for Food and Nutrition Security Research, Advocacy and Solutions in High-Income Countries. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 561. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Wittman, H. Food Sovereignty: A New Rights Framework for Food and Nature? Environ. Soc. 2011, 2, 87–105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Patel, R.C. Food Sovereignty: Power, Gender, and the Right to Food. PLoS Med. 2012, 9, e1001223. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Wald, N.; Hill, D.P. ‘Rescaling’ Alternative Food Systems: From Food Security to Food Sovereignty. Agric. Hum. Values 2015, 33, 203–213. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Weiler, A.M.; Hergesheimer, C.; Brisbois, B.; Wittman, H.; Yassi, A.; Spiegel, J.M. Food sovereignty, food security and health equity: A meta-narrative mapping exercise. Health Policy Plan. 2015, 30, 1078–1092. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Alkon, A.H.; Agyeman, J. Growing food and justice: Dismantling racism through sustainable food systems. In Cultivating Food Justice: Race, Class, and Sustainability; MIT Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2011; pp. 147–260. [Google Scholar]
- Block, D.R.; Chávez, N.; Allen, E.; Ramirez, D. Food Sovereignty, Urban Food Access, and Food Activism: Contemplating the Connections Through Examples from Chicago. Agric. Hum. Values 2011, 29, 203–215. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mui, Y.; Lee, B.Y.; Adam, A.; Kharmats, A.Y.; Budd, N.; Nau, C.; Gittelsohn, J. Healthy versus Unhealthy Suppliers in Food Desert Neighborhoods: A Network Analysis of Corner Stores’ Food Supplier Networks. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12, 15058–15074. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Renting, H.; Marsden, T.K.; Banks, J. Understanding Alternative Food Networks: Exploring the Role of Short Food Supply Chains in Rural Development. Environ. Plan. 2003, 35, 393–411. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Zerbe, N. Moving From Bread and Water to Milk and Honey: Framing the Emergent Alternative Food Systems. Humboldt J. Soc. Relat. 2010, 33, 4–29. [Google Scholar]
- Bradley, K.; Galt, R.E. Practicing Food Justice at Dig Deep Farms & Produce, East Bay Area, California: Self-Determination as a Guiding Value and Intersections with Foodie Logics. Local Environ. 2014, 19, 172–186. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- The Cornucopia Institute. Available online: https://www.cornucopia.org/2009/03/growing-power-in-an-urban-food-desert/ (accessed on 13 February 2022).
- Texas Observer. Available online: https://www.texasobserver.org/turning-the-food-desert-into-an-oasis/ (accessed on 17 January 2022).
- Edge, S.; Meyer, S.B. Pursuing Dignified Food Security Through Novel Collaborative Governance Initiatives: Perceived Benefits, Tensions and Lessons Learned. Soc. Sci. Med. 2019, 232, 77–85. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Minkler, M.; Estrada, J.; Dyer, S.; Hennessey-Lavery, S.; Wakimoto, P.; Falbe, J. Healthy Retail as a Strategy for Improving Food Security and the Built Environment in San Francisco. Am. J. Public Health 2019, 109, 5137–5140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Agyeman, J.; Schlosberg, D.; Craven, L.; Matthews, C. Trends and Directions in Environmental Justice: From Inequity to Everyday Life, Community, and Just Sustainabilities. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 2016, 41, 321–340. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vasquez, A.; Sherwood, N.E.; Larson, N.; Story, M. Community Supported Agriculture as a Dietary and Health Improvement Strategy: A Narrative Review. J. Acad. Nutr. Diet. 2017, 117, 83–94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Penniman, L. Farming While Black: Soul Fire Farm’s Practical Guide to Liberation on the Land; Chelsea Green Publishing: Chelsea, VT, USA, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Smith, B.J. Food Justice, Intersectional Agriculture, and the Triple Food Movement. Agric. Hum. Value 2019, 36, 825–835. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Taylor, D.E.; Ard, K.J. Research Article: Food Availability and the Food Desert Frame in Detroit: An Overview of the City’s Food System. Environ. Pract. 2015, 17, 102–133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aylott, R.; Mitchell, V.W. An Exploratory Study of Grocery Shopping Stressors. Int. J. Retail Distr. Manag. 1998, 26, 362–373. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Boyington, J.E.A.; Schoster, B.; Martin, K.R.; Shreffler, J.; Callahan, L.F. Perceptions of Individual and Community Environmental Influences on Fruit and Vegetable Intake, North Carolina, 2004. Prev. Chronic Dis. 2009, 6, A04. [Google Scholar]
- Clifton, K.J. Mobility Strategies and Food Shopping for Low-Income Families: A Case Study. J. Plan. Educ. Res. 2004, 23, 402–413. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cummins, S.; Findlay, A.; Higgins, C.; Petticrew, M.; Sparks, L.; Thomson, H. Reducing Inequalities in Health and Diet: Findings from a Study on the Impact of a Food Retail Development. Environ. Plan. A 2008, 40, 402–422. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Dubowitz, T.; Acevedo-Garcia, D.; Salkeld, J.; Lindsay, A.C.; Subramanian, S.V.; Peterson, K.E. Lifecourse, Immigrant Status and Acculturation in Food Purchasing and Preparation Among Low-Income Mothers. Public Health Nutr. 2007, 10, 396–404. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Kegler, M.C.; Escoffery, C.; Alcantara, I.; Ballard, D.; Glanz, K. A Qualitative Examination of Home and Neighborhood Environments for Obesity Prevention in Rural Adults. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 2008, 5, 65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Munoz-Plaza, C.E.; Filomena, S.; Morland, K.B. Disparities in Food Access: Inner-City Residents Describe their Local Food Environment. J. Hunger Environ. Nutr. 2008, 2, 51–64. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Whelan, A.; Wrigley, N.; Warm, D.; Cannings, E. Life in a “Food Desert”. Urban Stud. 2002, 39, 2083–2100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Withall, J.; Jago, R.; Cross, J. Families’ and health professionals’ perceptions of influences on diet, activity and obesity in a low-income community. Health Place 2009, 15, 1078–1085. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yeh, M.; Ickes, S.B.; Lowenstein, L.M.; Shuval, K.; Ammerman, A.S.; Farris, R.; Katz, D.L. Understanding Barriers and Facilitators of Fruit and Vegetable Consumption Among a Diverse Multi-Ethnic Population in the USA. Health Promot. Int. 2008, 23, 42–51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- King, S.; McFarland, A.; Vogelzang, J. Food Sovereignty and Sustainability Mid-Pandemic: How Michigan’s Experience of Covid-19 Highlights Chasms in the Food System. Agric. Hum. Values 2021, 39, 827–838. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Heynen, N.; Kurtz, H.E.; Trauger, A. Food Justice, Hunger and the City. Geogr. Compass 2012, 6, 304–311. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Understanding Access to Grocery Stores in Food Deserts in Baltimore City. Available online: https://www2.morgan.edu/Documents/ACADEMICS/CENTERS/NTC/Food%20Deserts.pdf (accessed on 10 June 2022).
- U.S Census Bureau: QuickFacts Baltimore City, Maryland. Available online: https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/baltimorecitymaryland/INC110220 (accessed on 19 May 2022).
- United States Census Bureau: Income and Poverty in the United States: 2020. Available online: https://www.census.gov/library/publications/2021/demo/p60-273.html#:~:text=Median%20household%20income%20was%20%2467%2C521,median%20household%20income%20since%202011 (accessed on 19 May 2022).
- Live Stories: Baltimore SNAP (Food Stamp) Household Statistics. Available online: https://www.livestories.com/statistics/maryland/baltimore-snap-food-stamp-households (accessed on 19 May 2022).
- Baltimore City Health Department: State of Health in Baltimore: White Paper, March 2017. Available online: https://health.baltimorecity.gov/state-health-baltimore-winter-2016/state-health-baltimore-white-paper-2017 (accessed on 19 May 2022).
- Creswell, J.W.; Poth, C.N. Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design: Choosing among Five Approaches, 4th ed.; Sage Publications: Los Angeles, CA, USA, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Gilligan, C. The Listening Guide Method of Psychological Inquiry. Qual. Psychol. 2015, 2, 69–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Seidman, I.E. Interviewing as Qualitative Research: A Guide for Researchers in Education and the Social Sciences, 2nd ed.; Teachers College Press: New York City, NY, USA, 1998. [Google Scholar]
- Levitt, H.M. Qualitative Generalization, Not to the Population but to the Phenomenon: Reconceptualizing Variation in Qualitative Research. Qual. Psychol. 2021, 8, 95–110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Connelly, F.M.; Clandinin, D.J. Stories of Experience and Narrative Inquiry. Educ. Res. 1990, 19, 2–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bleakley, A. Stories as Data, Data as Stories: Making Sense of Narrative Inquiry in Clinical Education. Med. Educ. 2005, 39, 534–540. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Anderson, C.; Kirkpatrick, S. Narrative interviewing. Int. J. Clin. Pharm. 2016, 38, 631–634. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Creswell, J.W. Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing among Five Approaches, 2nd ed.; Sage Publications Inc.: Thousand Oaks, CA, USA, 2007. [Google Scholar]
- Creswell, J.W. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches, 3rd ed.; Sage Publications Inc.: Thousand Oaks, CA, USA, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Braun, V.; Clarke, V. Using Thematic Analysis in Psychology. Qual. Res. Psychol. 2006, 3, 77–101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lieblich, A.; Tuval-Mashiach, R.; Zilber, T. Narrative Research: Reading, Analysis, and Interpretation; Sage Publications Inc.: Thousand Oaks, CA, USA, 1998; Volume 47. [Google Scholar]
- Patel, R. Food Sovereignty. J. Peasant Stud. 2009, 36, 663–706. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Colson-Fearon, B.; Versey, H.S. Urban Agriculture as a Means to Food Sovereignty? A Case Study of Baltimore City Residents. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 12752. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912752
Colson-Fearon B, Versey HS. Urban Agriculture as a Means to Food Sovereignty? A Case Study of Baltimore City Residents. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(19):12752. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912752
Chicago/Turabian StyleColson-Fearon, Brionna, and H. Shellae Versey. 2022. "Urban Agriculture as a Means to Food Sovereignty? A Case Study of Baltimore City Residents" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 19: 12752. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912752