Soil Physicochemical Changes as Modulated by Treated Wastewater after Medium-and Long-Term Irrigations: A Case Study from Tunisia
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Environmental Background of the Study Area
2.2. Experimental Design and Soil Sampling
2.3. Element Analysis
2.4. DATA Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Soil pH
3.2. Soil Electrical Conductivity (EC)
3.3. Cation Element Contents and Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
3.4. Soil Adsorption Ratio (SAR)
3.5. Cation Ratio for Soil Structural Stability (CROSS)
3.6. Relationship between CEC, SAR, CROSS, and Cation Concentrations
4. Discussion
4.1. Effects of TWW and Application Period on Physicochemical Properties
4.2. Effects of the Interactive Soil Layer and Water Type on Physicochemical Attributes
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Catchment Basin | Surface (km2) | Length (km) | Altitude (m) | Input (mm3 year−1) |
---|---|---|---|---|
El Kebir | 43.8 | 15.2 | 118 | 2.69 |
Souhil | 22.1 | 12.5 | 104 | 1.35 |
Parameter | TWW | GW | Standars * |
---|---|---|---|
pH | 7.7 | 8.08 | 6.5–8.5 |
EC (dS m−1) | 4 | 3.5 | 7 |
Cl− (mg L−1) | 705 | 390 | 2000 |
Na+ (mg L−1) | 516 | 590 | - |
K+ (mg L−1) | 41.5 | 25 | - |
Ca2+ (mg L−1) | 25 | 12 | - |
Mg2+ (mg L−1) | 30 | 3 | - |
SS (mg L−1) | 17 | 4.3 | 30 |
COD (mg L−1) | 56 | 19 | 90 |
BOD5 (mg L−1) | 30 | 4.27 | 30 |
Depth (cm) | Sand (%) | Clay (%) | Silt (%) | Soil Texture |
---|---|---|---|---|
0–20 | 79.5 ± 1 | 12.5 ± 1.0 | 8.0 ± 1.0 | Sandy |
20–40 | 79.0 ± 0.5 | 13.5 ± 0.5 | 7.5 ± 0.5 | Sandy |
40–60 | 78.5 ± 0.3 | 14.5 ± 0.3 | 7.0 ± 0.3 | Sandy |
60–80 | 79.0 ± 0.5 | 13.0 ± 0.5 | 8.0 ± 0.5 | Sandy |
80–100 | 79.0 ± 0.5 | 14.0 ± 0.5 | 7.0 ± 0.5 | Sandy |
(a) GW | ||||||||
Period of irrigation | pH | EC (dS m−1) | SAR (mmole0.5 L−0.5) | CROSS (mmole0.5 L−0.5) | ||||
with GW (IP) | ||||||||
P1 (38 years) | 8.19 | 0.48 | 1.37 | 1.66 | ||||
P2 (20 years) | 8.23 | 0.62 | 1.51 | 1.73 | ||||
Depth (cm) (D) | P1 | P2 | P1 | P2 | P1 | P2 | P1 | P2 |
0–20 | 8.54 a ± 0.2 | 8.16 c ± 0.0 | 0.64 b ± 0.0 | 0.7 a ± 0.0 | 1.03 d ± 0.2 | 1.11 cd ± 0.0 | 1.43 c ± 0.2 | 1.66 b ± 0.0 |
20–40 | 8.17 c ± 0.0 | 8.07 d ± 0.0 | 0.48 e ± 0.0 | 0.69 a ± 0.0 | 1.49 b ± 0.0 | 1.4 b ± 0.0 | 1.91 a ± 0.0 | 1.59 b ± 0.0 |
40–60 | 8.33 b ± 0.0 | 8.09 d ± 0.0 | 0.38 g ± 0.0 | 0.64 b ± 0.0 | 1.74 a ± 0.1 | 1.81 a ± 0.0 | 1.97 a ± 0.2 | 1.92 a ± 0.0 |
60–80 | 8.08 d ± 0.0 | 8.36 b ± 0.0 | 0.48 e ± 0.0 | 0.58 c ± 0.0 | 1.41 b ± 0.0 | 1.48 b ± 0.0 | 1.7 b ± 0.0 | 1.61 b ± 0.0 |
80–100 | 7.87 e ± 0.0 | 8.48 a ± 0.0 | 0.42 f ± 0.0 | 0.53 d ± 0.0 | 1.21 c ± 0.0 | 1.76 a ± 0.1 | 1.3 c ± 0.0 | 1.88 a ± 0.1 |
IP | ns | * | * | * | ||||
D | * | * | * | * | ||||
IP × D | * | * | * | * | ||||
(b) TWW | ||||||||
Period of irrigation with TWW (IP) | pH | EC (dS m−1) | SAR (mmole0.5L−0.5) | CROSS (mmole0.5L−0.5) | ||||
P1 (38 years) | 8.4 | 1.3 | 0.8 | 1.1 | ||||
P2 (20 years) | 8.0 | 1.2 | 1.0 | 1.3 | ||||
Depth (cm) (D) | P1 | P2 | P1 | P2 | P1 | P2 | P1 | P2 |
0–20 | 8.3 ab ± 0.0 | 7.6 b ± 0.0 | 1.1 a ± 0.0 | 1.2 a ± 0.2 | 0.6 a ± 0.0 | 0.3 a ± 0.0 | 0.9 a ± 0.0 | 0.7 a ± 0.0 |
20–40 | 8.5 a ± 0.0 | 8.0 ab ± 0.0 | 1.3 a ± 0.0 | 0.8 a ± 0.0 | 0.8 a ± 0.0 | 0.8 a ± 0.0 | 1.1 a ± 0.0 | 1.0 a ± 0.1 |
40–60 | 8.6 a ± 0.0 | 8.2 ab ± 0.0 | 1.2 a ± 0.0 | 1.2 a ± 0.0 | 0.8 a ± 0.1 | 1.3 a ± 0.0 | 1.0 a ± 0.1 | 1.5 a ± 0.0 |
60–80 | 8.3 ab ± 0.0 | 8.1 ab ± 0.0 | 1.3 a ± 0.0 | 1.3 a ± 0.0 | 0.7 a ± 0.0 | 1.0 a ± 0.0 | 1.1 a ± 0.0 | 1.3 a ± 0.0 |
80–100 | 8.2 ab ± 0.0 | 8.2 ab ± 0.0 | 1.6 a ± 0.0 | 1.5 a ± 0.0 | 1.0 a ± 0.0 | 1.2 a ± 0.0 | 1.3 a ± 0.0 | 1.6 a ± 0.1 |
IP | * | ns | ns | ns | ||||
D | ns | ns | ns | ns | ||||
IP × D | ns | ns | ns | ns |
(a) GW | ||||||||||
Irrigation period | Ca2+ (mmoleL−1) | Mg2+(mmoleL−1) | K+(mmoleL−1) | Na+(mmoleL−1) | CEC (mmoleL−1) | |||||
with GW (IP) | ||||||||||
P1 (38 years) | 1.52 | 0.72 | 0.32 | 1.4 | 3.95 | |||||
P2 (20 years) | 2.29 | 0.41 | 0.37 | 1.7 | 4.79 | |||||
Depth (cm) (D) | P1 | P2 | P1 | P2 | P1 | P2 | P1 | P2 | P1 | P2 |
0–20 | 2.04 d ± 0.0 | 3.64 a ± 0.0 | 0.68 d ± 0.0 | 0.11 g ± 0.0 | 0.69 b ± 0.0 | 0.31 a ± 0.0 | 1.2 h ± 0.2 | 1.52 def ± 0.0 | 4.62 b ± 0.2 | 6.58 a ± 0.1 |
20–40 | 1.14 g ± 0.0 | 2.5 b ± 0.2 | 0.57 e ± 0.0 | 0.23 f ± 0.0 | 0.47 c ± 0.0 | 0.35 d ± 0.0 | 1.38 g ± 0.0 | 1.63 cd ± 0.0 | 3.55 e ± 0.1 | 4.71 b ± 0.2 |
40–60 | 0.8 h ± 0.5 | 1.59 e ± 0.0 | 0.53 e ± 0.0 | 0.23 f ± 0.0 | 0.1 f ± 0.0 | 0.11 f ± 0.0 | 1.42 fg ± 0.0 | 1.72 bc ± 0.0 | 2.84 f ± 0.3 | 3.65 de ± 0.0 |
60–80 | 1.36 f ± 0.1 | 2.04 d ± 0.0 | 0.8 c ± 0.1 | 0.91 b ± 0.0 | 0.31 e ± 0.0 | 0.06 g ± 0.0 | 1.46 efg ± 0.0 | 1.8 ab ± 0.0 | 3.93 cd ± 0.1 | 4.81 b ± 0.0 |
80–100 | 2.27 c ± 0.0 | 1.7 e ± 0.2 | 1.02 a ± 0.0 | 0.57 e ± 0.0 | 0.03 h ± 0.0 | 0.06 g ± 0.0 | 1.55 de ± 0.0 | 1.87 a ± 0.0 | 4.87 b ± 0.1 | 4.2 c ± 0.0 |
IP | * | * | * | * | * | |||||
D | * | * | * | * | * | |||||
IP × D | * | * | * | * | * | |||||
(b) TWW | ||||||||||
Irrigation period | Ca2+ (mmoleL−1) | Mg2+(mmoleL−1) | K+(mmoleL−1) | Na+(mmoleL−1) | CEC (mmoleL−1) | |||||
with TWW (IP) | ||||||||||
P1 (38 years) | 2.2 | 1.0 | 0.6 | 1.0 | 4.7 | |||||
P2 (20 years) | 2.3 | 1.0 | 0.5 | 1.2 | 5.0 | |||||
Depth (cm) (D) | P1 | P2 | P1 | P2 | P1 | P2 | P1 | P2 | P1 | P2 |
0–20 | 2.6 a ± 0.0 | 3.3 a ± 0.0 | 0.9 a ± 0.0 | 1.4 a ± 0.0 | 0.8 a ± 0.0 | 1.0 a ± 0.0 | 0.7 a ± 0.0 | 0.6 a ± 0.0 | 5.1 a ± 0.1 | 6.4 a ± 0.1 |
20–40 | 2.6 a ± 0.0 | 1.8 a ± 0.0 | 0.7 a ± 0.0 | 0.9 a ± 0.0 | 0.5 a ± 0.0 | 0.4 a ± 0.0 | 1.1 a ± 0.0 | 0.9 a ± 0.1 | 4.9 a ± 0.1 | 4.0 a ± 0.1 |
40–60 | 2.0 a ± 0.5 | 2.3 a ± 0.0 | 1.1 a ± 0.0 | 0.9 a ± 0.0 | 0.4 a ± 0.0 | 0.2 a ± 0.0 | 1.0 a ± 0.0 | 1.7 a ± 0.0 | 4.5 a ± 0.5 | 5.2 a ± 0.1 |
60–80 | 1.8 a ± 0.1 | 2.0 a ± 0.1 | 1.1 a ± 0.0 | 0.8 a ± 0.1 | 0.6 a ± 0.0 | 0.3 a ± 0.0 | 0.9 a ± 0.0 | 1.3 a ± 0.0 | 4.4 a ± 0.2 | 4.3 a ± 0.1 |
80–100 | 2.0 a ± 0.0 | 2.0 a ± 0.3 | 1.1 a ± 0.0 | 0.8 a ± 0.0 | 0.5 a ± 0.0 | 0.7 a ± 0.0 | 1.2 a ± 0.0 | 1.4 a ± 0.0 | 4.8 a ± 0.1 | 5.0 a ± 0.4 |
IP | ns | ns | ns | ns | ns | |||||
D | ns | ns | ns | ns | ns | |||||
IP × D | ns | ns | ns | ns | ns |
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Bekir, S.; Zoghlami, R.I.; Boudabbous, K.; Khelil, M.N.; Moussa, M.; Ghrib, R.; Nahdi, O.; Trabelsi, E.; Bousnina, H. Soil Physicochemical Changes as Modulated by Treated Wastewater after Medium-and Long-Term Irrigations: A Case Study from Tunisia. Agriculture 2022, 12, 2139. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12122139
Bekir S, Zoghlami RI, Boudabbous K, Khelil MN, Moussa M, Ghrib R, Nahdi O, Trabelsi E, Bousnina H. Soil Physicochemical Changes as Modulated by Treated Wastewater after Medium-and Long-Term Irrigations: A Case Study from Tunisia. Agriculture. 2022; 12(12):2139. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12122139
Chicago/Turabian StyleBekir, Sinda, Rahma Inès Zoghlami, Khaoula Boudabbous, Mohamed Naceur Khelil, Mohammed Moussa, Rim Ghrib, Oumaima Nahdi, Emna Trabelsi, and Habib Bousnina. 2022. "Soil Physicochemical Changes as Modulated by Treated Wastewater after Medium-and Long-Term Irrigations: A Case Study from Tunisia" Agriculture 12, no. 12: 2139. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12122139