Open Access
Issue
Published:
28 February 2024
Cardiovascular Risk Factors in China
Download citation
245
Views
15
Downloads
0
Crossref
0
WoS
0
Scopus
0
CSCD
The Annual Report on Cardiovascular Health and Diseases in China (2022) intricate landscape of cardiovascular health in China. This section dissects cardiovascular risk factors in China which including hypertension, dyslipidemia, diabetes mellitus, chronic kidney disease, metabolic syndrome and air pollution. Hypertension prevalence has steadily increased in China, with efforts to control it facing challenges in achieving optimal rates, especially in rural areas. Interventions like salt substitutes and intensive blood pressure control show promise but need improvement. Abnormal lipid levels, indicative of dyslipidemia, have risen significantly, posing a risk for cardiovascular diseases. Despite efforts, many patients struggle to achieve target lipid levels, necessitating improved treatment strategies. Both type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus affect millions of adults in China, with long-term complications adding to the disease burden. Early intervention and effective management are crucial to mitigate its impact. Prevalent among older adults, chronic kidney disease is associated with diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and cardiovascular diseases, necessitating comprehensive management approaches. The prevalence of metabolic syndrome, characterized by a cluster of risk factors, has increased in both adults and adolescents, calling for lifestyle modifications and public health interventions. Ambient and household air pollution remain significant environmental risk factors, despite some improvements in air quality. Continued efforts to reduce emissions are essential for mitigating associated health risks. Addressing these risk factors requires a multifaceted approach, including public health initiatives, policy interventions, and individual-level strategies to promote healthy lifestyles and reduce environmental exposures. Surveillance and research efforts are crucial for monitoring trends and developing effective strategies to lessen the burden of cardiovascular diseases in China.
menu
Cardiovascular Risk Factors in China
Abstract
The Annual Report on Cardiovascular Health and Diseases in China (2022) intricate landscape of cardiovascular health in China. This section dissects cardiovascular risk factors in China which including hypertension, dyslipidemia, diabetes mellitus, chronic kidney disease, metabolic syndrome and air pollution. Hypertension prevalence has steadily increased in China, with efforts to control it facing challenges in achieving optimal rates, especially in rural areas. Interventions like salt substitutes and intensive blood pressure control show promise but need improvement. Abnormal lipid levels, indicative of dyslipidemia, have risen significantly, posing a risk for cardiovascular diseases. Despite efforts, many patients struggle to achieve target lipid levels, necessitating improved treatment strategies. Both type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus affect millions of adults in China, with long-term complications adding to the disease burden. Early intervention and effective management are crucial to mitigate its impact. Prevalent among older adults, chronic kidney disease is associated with diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and cardiovascular diseases, necessitating comprehensive management approaches. The prevalence of metabolic syndrome, characterized by a cluster of risk factors, has increased in both adults and adolescents, calling for lifestyle modifications and public health interventions. Ambient and household air pollution remain significant environmental risk factors, despite some improvements in air quality. Continued efforts to reduce emissions are essential for mitigating associated health risks. Addressing these risk factors requires a multifaceted approach, including public health initiatives, policy interventions, and individual-level strategies to promote healthy lifestyles and reduce environmental exposures. Surveillance and research efforts are crucial for monitoring trends and developing effective strategies to lessen the burden of cardiovascular diseases in China.
References(196)
Wang ZW, Chen Z, Zhang LF, et al. Status of hypertension in China: results from the China Hypertension Survey, 2012–2015. Circulation 2018; 137: 2344−2356.
Zhang M, Wu J, Zhang X, et al. [Study on the prevalence and control status of hypertension among Chinese adults in 2018]. Zhong Hua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi 2021; 42: 1780−1789. [In Chinese].
Ma SJ, Yang L, Zhao M, et al. Trends in hypertension prevalence, awareness, treatment and control rates among Chinese adults, 1991–2015. J Hypertens 2021; 39: 740−748.
Liang SL, Pang GF, Yang Z, et al. [Research on the prevalence and characteristics of hypertension in elderly community residents]. Zhong Guo Lao Nian Bao Jian Yi Xue 2021; 19: 12−14. [In Chinese].
Yu Q, Lin SQ, Wu JL. Hypertension prevalence rates among urban and rural older adults of China, 1991–2015: a standardization and decomposition analysis. Front Public Health 2021; 9: 713730.
Yi Q, Zha MM, Yang QW, et al. Trends in the prevalence of hypertension according to severity and phenotype in Chinese adults over two decades (1991–2015). J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) 2021; 23: 1302−1315.
China PEACE MPP Collaborative Group. Severe hypertension in China: results from the China PEACE million persons project. J Hypertens 2021; 39: 461−470.
Luo YM, Xia F, Yu XX, et al. Long-term trends and regional variations of hypertension incidence in China: A prospective cohort study from the China Health and Nutrition Survey, 1991–2015. BMJ Open 2021; 11.
Sun NL, Jiang YN, Wang HY, et al. Survey on sodium and potassium intake in patients with hypertension in China. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) 2021; 23: 1957−1964.
Neal B, Wu YF, Feng XX, et al. Effect of salt substitution on cardiovascular events and death. N Engl J Med 2021; 29.
Li X, Niu HQ, Bai XG, et al. Association of obesity and hypertension: A cohort study in China. Int J Hypertens 2021; 2021: 1607475.
Zhang LN, Zheng XX, Song LL, et al. [Longitudinal study on the influence of changes in body weight on changes in blood pressure, blood sugar, and blood lipids in middle-aged and elderly people]. Zhong Hua Yu Fang Yi Xue 2018; 52: 915−921. [In Chinese].
Zhao FF, Liu QQ, Li YJ, et al. Association between alcohol consumption and hypertension in Chinese adults: Findings from the CHNS. Alcohol 2020; 83: 83−88.
Coelho JS, Martinez OGE, Siqueira JH, et al. Alcoholic beverage consumption, changes in blood pressure, and incidence of hypertension in the Longitudinal Adult Health Study (ELSA-Brasil). Nutrition 2021; 91-92: 111387.
Lin HL, Guo YF, Zheng Y, et al. Long-term effects of ambient PM2.5 on hypertension and blood pressure and attributable risk among older Chinese adults. Hypertension 2017; 69: 806−812.
Wu YF, Ye ZR, Fang Y. Spatial analysis of the effects of PM2.5 on hypertension among the middle-aged and elderly people in China. Int J Environ Health Res 2019; 31: 729−740.
Kang YT, Han Y, Guan TJ, et al. Clinical blood pressure responses to daily ambient temperature exposure in China: an analysis based on a representative nationwide population. Sci Total Environ, 2020; 705: 135762.
Li ZZ, Li YY, Chen LZ, et al. Prevalence of depression in patients with hypertension: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Medicine (Baltimore) 2015; 94: e1317.
Wang ZW, Wang X, Shen Y, et al. Effect of a workplace-based multicomponent intervention on hypertension control: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Cardiol 2020; 5: 567−575.
Sun YX, Mu JJ, Wang DW, et al. A village doctor-led multifaceted intervention for blood pressure control in rural China: An open, cluster randomized trial. Lancet 2022; 399: 1964−1975.
Zhang WL, Zhang SY, Deng Y, et al. Trial of intensive blood-pressure control in older patients with hypertension. N Engl J Med 2021; 385: 1268−1279.
Lai XX, Dong ZY, Wu SX, et al. Efficacy and safety of Chinese herbal medicine compared with Losartan for mild essential hypertension: A randomized, multicenter, double-blind, noninferiority trial. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes, 2022; 15: e007923.
Zhang DY, Cheng YB, Guo QH, et al. Treatment of Masked Hypertension with a Chinese Herbal Formula: A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial. Circulation 2020; 142: 1821−1830.
Wang JL, Ma JX, Yang YB, et al. [Current situation analysis of the National Healthy Lifestyle Action]. Zhong Guo Man Xing Bing Yu Fang Yu Kong Zhi 2019; 27: 724−727,731. [In Chinese].
National Health Commission Disease Prevention and Control Bureau. [Adhering to prevention as the mainstay to promote the health of the people and assist in the comprehensive well-off society]. Zhong Hua Ji Bing Kong Zhi Za Zhi 2020; 24: 1117−1119,1236. [In Chinese].
You LL, Zhao JH, Chen XY, et al. [Progress and effectiveness of the implementation of the national basic public health service project for ten years]. Zhong Guo Quan Ke Yi Xue 2022; 25: 3209−3220. [In Chinese].
Chinese Hypertension Prevention and Treatment Guidelines Revision Committee. [Chinese hypertension prevention and treatment guidelines (2018 revised edition)]. Zhongguo Xin Xue Guan Za Zhi 2019; 24: 24−56. [In Chinese].
Fan H, Yan YK, Mi J. [Blood pressure reference standards for Chinese children aged 3–17 years by gender, age, and height]. Zhonghua Gao Xue Ya Za Zhi 2017; 25: 428−435. [In Chinese].
Fan H, Yan YK, Mi J. [Development of simplified blood pressure standards for Chinese children aged 3–17 years]. Zhonghua Gao Xue Ya Za Zhi 2017; 25: 436−440. [In Chinese].
Liu K, Li C, Gong HB, et al. Prevalence and risk factors for hypertension in adolescents aged 12 to 17 years: A school-based study in China. Hypertension 2021; 78: 1577−1585.
Flynn JT, Kaelber DC, Baker-Smith CM, et al. Clinical practice guideline for screening and management of high blood pressure in children and adolescents. Pediatrics 2017; 140: e20171904.
Chen YJ, Ye PY, Liu XR, et al. Characteristics of pediatric inpatients with primary and secondary hypertension. Pe diatr Investig 2021; 5: 28−32.
Dong B, Ma J, Wang HJ, et al. The association of overweight and obesity with blood pressure among Chinese children and adolescents. Biomed Environ Sci 2013; 26: 437−444.
Ye XX, Yi Q, Shao J, et al. Trends in prevalence of hypertension and hypertension phenotypes among Chinese children and adolescents over two decades (1991–2015). Fr ont Cardiovasc Med 2021; 8: 627741.
Dong YH, Ma J, Song Y, et al. Secular trends in blood pressure and overweight and obesity in Chinese boys and girls aged 7 to 17 years from 1995 to 2014. Hypertension 2018; 72: 298−305.
Liu JY, Gao D, Li YH, et al. Breastfeeding duration and high blood pressure in children and adolescents: Results from a cross-sectional study of seven provinces in China. Nutrients 2022; 14: 3152.
Feng Y, Bi Y, Tang X, et al. Protective effects of appropriate amount of nuts intake on childhood blood pressure level: A cross-sectional study. Front Med (Lausa nne) 2022; 8: 793672.
Wang XT, He TT, Xu SH, et al. Soy food intake associated with obesity and hypertension in children and adolescents in Guangzhou, southern China. Nutrients 2022; 14: 425.
Ye PY, Zhao XY, Yan YK, et al. [Childhood hyperuricemia and risk of cardiovascular metabolic abnormalities]. Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi 2021; 42: 433−439. [In Chinese].
Dong YH, Jan C, Zou ZY, et al. Comprehensive physical fitness and high blood pressure in children and adolescents: A national cross-sectional survey in China. J Sci Med Sport 2020; 23: 800−806.
Li J, Dong YH, Song Y, et al. Long-term effects of PM2.5 components on blood pressure and hypertension in Chinese children and adolescents. Environ Int 2022; 161: 107134.
Yao Y, Chen DY, Yin JW, et al. Phthalate exposure linked to high blood pressure in Chinese children. Environ Int 2020; 143: 105958.
Zhang Z, Ma J, Wang ZH, et al. Parental smoking and blood pressure in children and adolescents: A national cross-sectional study in China. BMC Pediatr 2019; 19: 116.
Zhang HS, Yu LJ, Wang Q, et al. In utero and postnatal exposure to environmental tobacco smoke, blood pressure, and hypertension in children: The Seven Northeastern Cities study. Int J Environ Health Res 2020; 30: 618−629.
Luo YN, Yang BY, Zou Z, et al. Associations of greenness surrounding schools with blood pressure and hypertension: A nationwide cross-sectional study of 61, 229 children and adolescents in China. Environ Res 2022; 204: 112004.
Yang L, Yang LL, Zhang YY, et al. Prevalence of target organ damage in Chinese hypertensive children and adolescents. Front Pediatr 2018; 6: 333.
Li ZL, Duan Y, Zhao M, et al. Two-year change in blood pressure status and left ventricular mass index in Chinese children. Front Med (Lausanne) 2021; 8: 708044.
Liang YJ, Hou DQ, Shan XY, et al. Cardiovascular remodeling relates to elevated childhood blood pressure: Beijing Blood Pressure Cohort Study. Int J Cardiol 2014; 177: 836−839.
Yan YK, Hou DQ, Liu JT, et al. Childhood body mass index and blood pressure in prediction of subclinical vascular damage in adulthood: Beijing blood pressure cohort. J Hypertens 2017; 35: 47−54.
Yan YK, Hou DQ, Liu JT, et al. [A cohort study of the impact of changes in blood pressure during childhood to adulthood on early renal damage in adulthood]. Zho nghua Yu Fang Yi Xue Za Zhi 2018; 52: 1140−1145. [In Chinese].
Zheng WL, Mu JJ, Chu C, et al. Association of blood pressure trajectories in early life with subclinical renal damage in middle age. J Am Soc Nephrol 2018; 29: 2835−2846.
Wang Y, Zhao P, Chu C, et al. Associations of long-term visit-to-visit blood pressure variability with subclinical kidney damage and albuminuria in adulthood: a 30-year prospective cohort study. Hypertension 2022; 79: 1247−1256.
Dong YH, Zou ZY, Wang HJ, et al. National school-based health lifestyles intervention in Chinese children and adolescents on obesity and hypertension. Front Pediatr 2021; 9: 615283.
Yan YK, Liu JT, Zhao XY, et al. Cardiovascular health in urban Chinese children and adolescents. Annals of Med icine 2019; 51: 88−96.
Zhu YN, Guo PF, Zou ZY, et al. Status of cardiovascular health in Chinese children and adolescents: A cross-sectional study in China. JACC:Asia 2022; 2: 87−100.
Wang JJ, Lau W, Wang HJ, et al. Evaluation of a comprehensive intervention with a behavioral modification strategy for childhood obesity prevention: a nonrandomized cluster controlled trial. BMC Public Health 2015; 15: 1206.
Ding WQ, Cheng H, Yan YK, et al. 10-year trends in serum lipid levels and dyslipidemia among children and adolescents from several schools in Beijing, China. J Epidemiol 2016; 26: 637−645.
Li YQ, Jia SS, Liu BB, et al. [Analysis of the prevalence of blood lipid abnormalities in children aged 12–17 in western China from 2016 to 2017]. Zhongguo Gong Gong Wei Sheng 2021; 37: 1508−1513. [In Chinese].
Zhao WH, Zhang J, You Y, et al. [Study on the prevalence characteristics of dyslipidemia in people aged 18 and above in China]. Zhonghua Yu Fang Yi Xue Za Zhi 2005; 39: 306−310. [In Chinese].
Pan L, Yang ZH, Wu Y, et al. The prevalence, awareness, treatment and control of dyslipidemia among adults in China. Atherosclerosis 2016; 248: 2−9.
Dai J, Min JQ, Yang YJ. [Research on the characteristics of blood lipid abnormality prevalence in adults in nine provinces and cities in China]. Zhonghua Xin Xue Guan Bing Za Zhi 2018; 46: 114−118. [In Chinese].
China Hypertension Survey Group. [Survey on the status of dyslipidemia in Chinese population aged 35 and above from 2012 to 2015]. Zhongguo Xun Huan Za Zhi 2019; 34: 681−687. [In Chinese].
Lu Y, Zhang HB, Lu JP, et al; China patient-centered evaluative assessment of cardiac events million persons project collaborative group. Prevalence of dyslipidemia and availability of lipid-lowering medications among primary health care settings in China. JAMA Netw Open 2021; 4: e2127573.
Zhang M, Deng Q, Wang LH, et al. Prevalence of dyslipidemia and achievement of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol targets in Chinese adults: A nationally representative survey of 163, 641 adults. Int J Cardiol 2018; 260: 196−203.
Opoku S, Gany, FU WN, et al. Prevalence and risk factors for dyslipidemia among adults in rural and urban China: Findings from the China National Stroke Screening and prevention project (CNSSPP). BMC Public Health 2019; 19: 1500.
Peng K, Cai WC, Liu XY, et al. Trends of hypercholesterolemia change in Shenzhen, China during 1997–2018. Front Public Health 2022; 10: 887065.
Xing LY, Jing L, Tian YM, et al. Epidemiology of dyslipidemia and associated cardiovascular risk factors in northeast China: A cross-sectional study. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 2020; 30: 2262−2270.
Xi YF, Niu LW, Cao N, et al. Prevalence of dyslipidemia and associated risk factors among adults aged ≥ 35 years in northern China: a cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health 2020; 20: 1068.
Teng Hb, Gao Y, Wu Cq, et al. Prevalence and patient characteristics of familial hypercholesterolemia in a Chinese population aged 35–75 years: Results from China PEACE Million Persons Project. Atherosclerosis 2022; 350: 58−64.
Shi HW, Yang JG, Wang Y, et al. The prevalence of familial hypercholesterolemia (FH) in Chinese patients with acute myocardial infarction (AMI): Data from Chinese Acute Myocardial Infarction (CAMI) registry. Fro nt Cardiovasc Med 2020; 7: 113.
Wang XN, Wang F, Ye P, et al. [A cross-sectional survey of FH in Chinese outpatient clinic patients: Analysis of DYSIS-China study]. Zhonghua Xin Xue Guan Bing Za Zhi 2021; 49: 564−571. [In Chinese].
Teng HB, Liu JM, Wu CQ, et al. [Detection rate and treatment status of familial hypercholesterolemia in Chinese adult coronary heart disease patients]. Zhongguo Xun Huan Za Zhi 2021; 36: 444−450. [In Chinese].
Teng HB, Liu JM, Wu CQ, et al. [Detection rate and clinical characteristics of familial hypercholesterolemia in Chinese ischemic stroke patients]. Zhongguo Fen Zi Xin Zang Bing Xue Za Zhi 2021; 21: 3850−3855. [In Chinese].
Rare Disease Group of Pediatrics Branch of Chinese Medical Association, Cardiovascular Group of Chinese Medical Association Pediatrics Branch, Children's Health Group of Chinese Medical Association Pediatrics Branch, et al. [Expert consensus on the diagnosis and treatment of children with dyslipidemia]. Zhonghua Er Ke Za Zhi 2022; 60: 633−639. [In Chinese].
Cheng H, Xiao P, Hou DQ, et al. [Characteristics and related factors of blood lipid abnormalities in children and adolescents aged 6–16 in Beijing in 2017]. Zhongguo Xun Huan Za Zhi 2020; 35: 566−572. [In Chinese].
Yang WY, Xiao JZ, Yang ZJ, et al. Serum lipids and lipoproteins in Chinese men and women. Circulation 2012; 125: 2212−2221.
Yuan YP, Zhou XH, Lu JM, et al. Lipid control in adult Chinese patients with type 2 diabetes: a retrospective analysis of time trends and geographic regional differences. Chin Med J (Engl) 2021; 135: 356−358.
Xing YY, Liu J, Hao YC, et al; CCC-ACS investigators. Prehospital statin use and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels at admission in acute coronary syndrome patients with a history of myocardial infarction or revascularization: findings from the Improving Care for Cardiovascular Disease in China (CCC) project. Am Heart J 2019; 212: 120−128.
Xing YY, Liu J, Liu J, et al. [Statin use status and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in hospitalized patients with acute coronary syndrome aged 75 and above]. Zhonghua Xin Xue Guan Bing Za Zhi 2019; 47: 351−359. [In Chinese].
Gong YJ, Li X, Ma X, et al. Lipid goal attainment in post-acute coronary syndrome patients in China: Results from the 6-month real-world dyslipidemia international study II. Clin Cardiol 2021; 44: 1575−1585.
Wang CJ, Wang YL, Li ZX, et al. The management of LDL cholesterol and predictors of goal achievement in stroke patients in China: A cross-sectional study. CNS Neurosci Ther 2016; 22: 577−583.
Song XY, Wang HJ, Su C, et al. Trajectories of energy intake distribution and risk of dyslipidemia: Findings from the China Health and Nutrition Survey (1991–2018). Nutrients 2021; 13: 3488.
Tang F, Wang J, Nicholas S, et al. A cohort study on risk factors of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol hypolipidemia among urban Chinese adults. Lipids Health Dis 2021; 20: 20.
Song QF, Liu XX, Zhou WH, et al. Night sleep duration and risk of each lipid profile abnormality in a Chinese population: a prospective cohort study. Lipids Health Dis 2020; 19: 185.
Cai L, Ma BJ, Lin LZ, et al. The differences of lipid profiles between only children and children with siblings: A national survey in China. Sci Rep 2019; 9: 1441.
Liu JY, Li YH, Wang XX, et al. Association between fruit consumption and lipid profile among children and adolescents: A national cross-sectional study in China. Nutrients 2021; 14: 63.
Yu LL, Wang YJ, Yu DM, et al. Association between serum vitamin A, blood lipid level and dyslipidemia among Chinese children and adolescents. Nutrients 2022; 14: 1444.
Li WQ, Leng JH, Wang ST, et al. Childhood hyperlipidemia and its association with early growth among full-term-born children at 5 to 6 years of age in China. Obe sity (Silver Spring) 2020; 28: 1526−1535.
Zhang MN, Li MT, Zhi XL, et al. [Changes in the disease burden of atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases and related risk factors in China from 1990 to 2019]. Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi 2021; 41: 1797−1803. [In Chinese].
Lau KK, Chua BJ, Ng A, et al. Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and risk of recurrent vascular events in Chinese patients with ischemic stroke with and without significant atherosclerosis. J Am Heart Assoc 2021; 10: e021855.
Li SD, Liu ZG, Joseph P, et al. Modifiable risk factors associated with cardiovascular disease and mortality in China: a PURE substudy. Eur Heart J 2022; 43: 2852−2863.
Zhang Y, Li JY, Liu CZ, et al. High-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol and the Risk of First Ischemic Stroke in a Chinese Hypertensive Population. Clin Interv Aging 2021; 16: 801−810.
Zhao Y, Sun HH, Zhang WD, et al. Elevated triglyceride-glucose index predicts risk of incident ischemic stroke: The Rural Chinese cohort study. Diabetes Metab 2021; 47: 101246.
Hua JN, Qiao YN, Ke CF, et al. Higher visit-to-visit total cholesterol variability is associated with lower cognitive function among middle-aged and elderly Chinese men. Sci Rep 2020; 10: 15555.
Qi LT, Zhang QL, Zheng ZQ, et al. Treatment of Chinese patients with hypertriglyceridemia with a pharmaceutical-grade preparation of highly purified omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid ethyl esters: Main results of a randomized, double-blind, controlled trial. Vasc Health Risk Manag 2021; 17: 571−580.
Zhao BY, He XN, Wu J, et al. Adherence to statins and its impact on clinical outcomes: a retrospective population-based study in China. BMC Cardiovasc Disord 2020; 20: 282.
Zeng YH, Liu J, Liu J, et al. [Impact of the definition criteria of ultra-high-risk ASCVD patients on the demand for lipid-lowering treatment in hospitalized ACS patients]. Zhonghua Xin Xue Guan Bing Za Zhi 2020; 48: 1039−1046. [In Chinese].
Hypertension Branch of Chinese Society of Cardiology, Editorial Board of Chinese Journal of Cardiovascular Diseases. [Expert consensus on the comprehensive management of blood pressure and blood lipids in Chinese hypertensive patients]. Zhonghua Xin Xue Guan Bing Za Zhi 2021; 49: 554−563. [In Chinese].
Beijing Society of Cardiology. [Expert scientific advice on the relationship between lipoprotein(a) and cardiovascular disease risk and clinical management]. Zhongguo Xun Huan Za Zhi 2021; 36: 1158−1167. [In Chinese].
Chinese Society of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, Pediatric Branch of Chinese Medical Association, Cardiovascular Branch of Pediatric Society of Chinese Medical Association, et al. [Expert consensus on the diagnosis and treatment of pediatric lipid disorders]. Zhonghua Er Ke Za Zhi 2022; 60: 633−639. [In Chinese].
Li YZ, Teng D, Shi XG, et al. Prevalence of diabetes recorded in mainland China using 2018 diagnostic criteria from the American Diabetes Association: national cross-sectional study. BMJ 2020; 369: m997.
Liu YH, Ning X, Zhang LY, et al. Prevalence of long-term complications in inpatients with diabetes mellitus in China: a nationwide tertiary hospital-based study. BMJ Open Diabetes Res Care 2022; 10: e002720.
Wu JH, Wu YQ, Wu Y, et al. [Beijing urban employees with type 2 diabetes: incidence and risk factors for ischemic stroke]. Beijing Da Xue Xue Bao Yi Xue Ban 2022; 54: 249−254. [In Chinese].
Wang CC, Xie ZL, Huang X, et al. Prevalence of cardiovascular disease risk factors in Chinese patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus, 2013–2018. Curr Med Res Opin 2022; 38: 345−354.
Gong QH, Zhang P, Wang JP, et al. Morbidity and mortality after lifestyle intervention for people with impaired glucose tolerance: 30-year results of the Da Qing Diabetes Prevention Outcome Study. Lancet Diabetes Endocr inol 2019; 7: 452−461.
Chen YY, Zhang P, Wang JP, et al. Associations of progression to diabetes and regression to normal glucose tolerance with development of cardiovascular and microvascular disease among people with impaired glucose tolerance: a secondary analysis of the 30-year Da Qing Diabetes Prevention Outcome Study. Diabetologia 2021; 64: 1279−1287.
National Health Commission Capacity Building and Continuing Education Center. Expert consensus on the diagnosis and treatment of cardiovascular diseases in patients with diabetes. Chin J Intern Med 2021; 60: 421−437.
Cosentino F, Grant PJ, Aboyans V, et al. 2019 ESC guidelines on diabetes, pre-diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases developed in collaboration with the EASD. Eur He art J 2020; 41: 255−323.
Davies MJ, Aroda VR, Collins BS, et al. Management of hyperglycemia in type 2 diabetes, 2022. A consensus report by the American Diabetes Association (ADA) and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD). Diabetes Care 2022; 45: 2753−2786.
Zhang LX, Wang F, Wang L, et al. Prevalence of chronic kidney disease in China: a cross-sectional survey. Lancet 2012; 379: 815−822.
Jin HY, Zhou JY, Wu CK. Prevalence and health correlates of reduced kidney function among community-dwelling Chinese older adults: The China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study. BMJ Open 2020; 10: e042396.
Zhang L, Zhao MH, Zuo L, et al. China Kidney Disease Network (CK-NET) 2016 annual data report. Kidney Int Suppl (2011) 2020; 10: e97−e185.
Li Y, Hou XJ, Liu TS, et al. Comparison of coronary artery bypass grafting and drug-eluting stent implantation in patients with chronic kidney disease: a propensity score matching study. Front Cardiovasc Med 2022; 9: 802181.
Yang LJ, Ye N, Wang GQ, et al; CCC-ACS. The association between atrial fibrillation and in-hospital outcomes in chronic kidney disease patients with acute coronary syndrome: findings from the Improving Care for Cardiovascular Disease in China-Acute Coronary Syndrome (CCC-ACS) project. BMC Cardiovasc Disord 2021; 21: 345.
Wang JW, Lv JC, He K, et al. Association of left ventricular hypertrophy and functional impairment with cardiovascular outcomes and mortality among patients with chronic kidney disease, results from the C-STRIDE study. Nephrology 2022; 27: 327−336.
Jin Q, Luk AO, Lau ESH, et al. Nonalbuminuric diabetic kidney disease and risk of all-cause mortality and cardiovascular and kidney outcomes in type 2 diabetes: findings from the Hong Kong Diabetes Biobank. Am J Kidney Dis 2022; 80: 196−206.
Yao CH, Hu YS, Zhai FY, et al. [Prevalence of metabolic syndrome in China: a cross-sectional survey]. Zhongguo Tang Niao Bing Za Zhi 2007; 15: 332−335. [In Chinese].
He YN, Zhao WH, Zhao LY, et al. [Characteristics of metabolic syndrome prevalence among Chinese adults from 2010 to 2012]. Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi 2017; 38: 212−215. [In Chinese].
He YN, Zhao WH, Zhao LY. [Prevalence of metabolic syndrome among Chinese children and adolescents aged 10–17 years from 2010 to 2012]. Zhonghua Yu Fang Yi Xue Za Zhi 2017; 51: 513−518. [In Chinese].
Li YP, Zhou YJ, Zhu SS, et al. [Meta-analysis of the prevalence of metabolic syndrome in elderly Chinese people]. Xian Dai Yu Fang Yi Xue 2022; 49: 913−917. [In Chinese].
Zhou Q, Wang LJ, Chen L, et al. [Prevalence and influencing factors of metabolic syndrome among medical workers in Nanjing]. Shi Yong Yu Fang Yi Xue 2021; 28: 998−1001. [In Chinese].
Peng W, Wang YX, Wang HJ, et al. [Prevalence and related factors of metabolic syndrome among Tibetan herdsmen]. Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi 2022; 43: 533−540. [In Chinese].
Xu XY, Zeng J, Yang W, et al. Prevalence of metabolic syndrome among the adult population in western China and the association with socioeconomic and individual factors: four cross-sectional studies. BMJ Open 2022; 12: e052457.
Hidayat K, Zhu WZ, Peng SM, et al. The association between meat consumption and the metabolic syndrome: a cross-sectional study and meta-analysis. Br J Nutr 2022; 127: 1467−1481.
Yang Z, Li Y, Dong B, et al. Relationship between parental overweight and obesity and childhood metabolic syndrome in their offspring: result from a cross-sectional analysis of parent-offspring trios in China. BMJ Open 2020; 10: e036332.
Wang XL, Song JL, Gao Y, et al. Association between weight gain from young to middle adulthood and metabolic syndrome across different BMI categories at young adulthood. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2022; 12: 812104.
Liu C, Liu LP, Wang YL, et al. Hyperhomocysteinemia increases risk of metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular death in an elderly Chinese community population of a 7-year follow-up study. Front Cardiovasc Med 2022; 8: 811670.
Xue Q, Yang X, Huang Y, et al. Association between baseline and changes in high-sensitive C-reactive protein and metabolic syndrome: a nationwide cohort study and meta-analysis. Nutr Metab (Lond) 2022; 19: 2.
Yang W, Guo S, Wang H, et al. The Association of metabolic syndrome with the development of cardiovascular disease among Kazakhs in remote rural areas of Xinjiang, China: a cohort study. BMC Public Health 2021; 21: 216.
Huang ZG, Wang XX, Ding X, et al. Association of age of metabolic syndrome onset with cardiovascular diseases: The Kailuan Study. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2022; 13: 857985.
Liu L, Su X, Zhao Z, et al. Association of metabolic syndrome with long-term cardiovascular risks and all-cause mortality in elderly patients with obstructive sleep apnea. Front Cardiovasc Med 2022; 8: 813280.
He D, Zhang XH, Chen SH, et al. Dynamic changes of metabolic syndrome alter the risks of cardiovascular diseases and all-cause mortality: evidence from a prospective cohort study. Front Cardiovasc Med 2021; 8: 706999.
Liang FC, Xiao QY, Huang KY, et al. The 17-y spatiotemporal trend of PM (2.5) and its mortality burden in China. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2020; 117: 25601−25608.
Liu C, Yin P, Chen RJ, et al. Ambient carbon monoxide and cardiovascular mortality: a nationwide time-series analysis in 272 cities in China. Lancet Planet Health 2018; 2: e12−e18.
Yin P, Chen RJ, Wang LJ, et al. Ambient ozone pollution and daily mortality: A nationwide study in 272 Chinese cities. Environ Health Perspect 2017; 125: 117006.
Chen RJ, Yin P, Meng X, et al. Associations between ambient nitrogen dioxide and daily cause-specific mortality: Evidence from 272 Chinese cities. Epidemiology 2018; 29: 482−489.
Wang LJ, Liu C, Meng X, et al. Associations between short-term exposure to ambient sulfur dioxide and increased cause-specific mortality in 272 Chinese cities. Environ Int 2018; 117: 33−39.
Chen RJ, Yin P, Meng X, et al. Fine particulate air pollution and daily mortality: A nationwide analysis in 272 Chinese cities. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2017; 196: 73−81.
Sun Y, Zhang Y, Chen C, et al. Impact of heavy PM (2.5) pollution events on mortality in 250 Chinese counties. Environ Sci Technol 2022; 56: 8299−8307.
Ban J, Wang Q, Ma RM, et al. Associations between short-term exposure to PM(2.5) and stroke incidence and mortality in China: A case-crossover study and estimation of the burden. Environ Pollut 2021; 268: 115743.
Chen RJ, Jiang YX, Hu JL, et al. Hourly air pollutants and acute coronary syndrome onset in 1.29 million patients. Circulation 2022; 145: 1749−1760.
Tian YH, Liu H, Wu YQ, et al. Association between ambient fine particulate pollution and hospital admissions for cause-specific cardiovascular disease: Time series study in 184 major Chinese cities. BMJ 2019; 367: 16572.
Shi Y, Cai YP, Li YC, et al. [Atmospheric NO2 short-term exposure and risk of heart failure hospitalization: An association analysis]. Zhonghua Yu Fang Yi Xue Za Zhi 2022; 56: 328−333. [In Chinese].
Yang BY, Qu Y, Guo Y, et al. Maternal exposure to ambient air pollution and congenital heart defects in China. Environ Int 2021; 153: 106548.
Yan FY, Liu HM, Zhang HY, et al. Association between maternal exposure to gaseous pollutants and atrial septal defect in China: A nationwide population-based study. Environ Res 2021; 200: 111472.
Yang XL, Liang FC, Li JX, et al. Associations of long-term exposure to ambient PM(2.5) with mortality in Chinese adults: A pooled analysis of cohorts in the China-PAR project. Environ Int 2020; 138: 105589.
Guo C, Yu T, Bo YC, et al. Long-term exposure to fine particulate matter and mortality: A longitudinal cohort study of 400, 459 adults. Epidemiology 2022; 33: 309−317.
Liang FC, Liu FC, Huang KY, et al. Long-term exposure to fine particulate matter and cardiovascular disease in China. J Am Coll Cardiol 2020; 75: 707−717.
Liang RM, Chen RJ, Yin P, et al. Associations of long-term exposure to fine particulate matter and its constituents with cardiovascular mortality: A prospective cohort study in China. Environ Int 2022; 162: 107156.
Liu LJ, Zhang YY, Yang ZM, et al. Long-term exposure to fine particulate constituents and cardiovascular diseases in Chinese adults. J Hazard Mater 2021; 416: 126051.
Zheng CY, Tang HS, Wang X, et al. Left ventricular diastolic dysfunction and cardiovascular disease in different ambient air pollution conditions: A prospective cohort study. Sci Total Environ 2022; 831: 154872.
Chen PC, Sung FC, Mou CH, et al. A cohort study evaluating the risk of stroke associated with long-term exposure to ambient fine particulate matter in Taiwan. Environ Health 2022; 21: 43.
Huang KY, Liang FC, Yang XL, et al. Long-term exposure to ambient fine particulate matter and incidence of stroke: Prospective cohort study from the China-PAR project. BMJ 2019; 367: 16720.
Li TZ, Yu ZB, Xu LS, et al. Residential greenness, air pollution, and incident ischemic heart disease: A prospective cohort study in China. Sci Total Environ 2022; 838: 155881.
Liu JX, Liu FC, Liang FC, et al. Long-term effects of high exposure to ambient fine particulate matter on coronary heart disease incidence: A population-based Chinese cohort study. Environ Sci Technol 2020; 54: 6812−6821.
Liao SH, Chiu CS, Jang LH, et al. Long-term exposures to air pollutants and risk of peripheral arterial occlusive disease: A nationwide cohort study in Taiwan. Front Ca rdiovasc Med 2022; 9: 796423.
Zhang QL, Niu Y, Xia YJ, et al. The acute effects of fine particulate matter constituents on circulating inflammatory biomarkers in healthy adults. Sci Total Environ 2020; 707: 135989.
Xu HB, Zhu YT, Li LJ, et al. Combustion-derived particulate organic matter associated with hemodynamic abnormality and metabolic dysfunction in healthy adults. J Hazard Mater 2021; 418: 126261.
Zhao L, Fang JL, Tang S, et al. PM2.5 and serum metabolome and insulin resistance, potential mediation by the gut microbiome: A population-based panel study of older adults in China. Environ Health Perspect 2022; 130: 27007.
Xing XL, Liu FC, Yang XL, et al. Declines in heart rate variability associated with short-term PM (2.5) exposure were modified by blood pressure control and treatment: A multi-city panel study in China. Environ Pollut 2021; 287: 117572.
Ma H, Liu FC, Yang XL, et al. Association of short-term fine particulate matter exposure with pulmonary function in populations at intermediate to high-risk of cardiovascular disease: A panel study in three Chinese cities. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 2021; 220: 112397.
Lin ZN, Wang XY, Liu FC, et al. Impacts of short-term fine particulate matter exposure on blood pressure were modified by control status and treatment in hypertensive patients. Hypertension 2021; 78: 174−183.
Liu FC, Lin ZN, Wang XY, et al. Impacts of PM (2.5) on ambulatory blood pressure monitoring indicators attenuated by blood pressure control status and treatment - two cities and two municipalities, China, 2017–2019. Chi na CDC Wkly 2021; 3: 948−953.
Zhang ZZ, Su Y, Jing RJ, et al. Acute and lag effects of ambient fine particulate matter on the incidence of dyslipidemia in Chengdu, China: A time-series study. Envir on Sci Pollut Res Int 2022; 29: 37919−37929.
Lin X, Du ZC, Liu Y, et al. The short-term association of ambient fine particulate air pollution with hypertension clinic visits: A multi-community study in Guangzhou, China. Sci Total Environ 2021; 774: 145707.
Zhan MY, Li ZQ, Li XN, et al. Effect of short-term ambient PM (2.5) exposure on fasting blood glucose levels: A longitudinal study among 47, 471 people in eastern China. Environ Pollut 2021; 290: 117983.
Hu JL, Li WS, Gao Y, et al. Fine particulate matter air pollution and subclinical cardiovascular outcomes: A longitudinal study in 15 Chinese cities. Environ Int 2022; 163: 107218.
Liang FC, Yang XL, Liu FC, et al. Long-term exposure to ambient fine particulate matter and incidence of diabetes in China: A cohort study. Environ Int 2019; 126: 568−575.
Huang KY, Yang XL, Liang FC, et al. Long-term exposure to fine particulate matter and hypertension incidence in China. Hypertension 2019; 73: 1195−1201.
Huang SH, Zhang XY, Liu ZY, et al. Long-term impacts of ambient fine particulate matter exposure on overweight or obesity in Chinese adults: The China-PAR project. Environ Res 2021; 201: 111611.
Cao H, Li BX, Liu K, et al. Association of long-term exposure to ambient particulate pollution with stage 1 hypertension defined by the 2017 ACC/AHA Hypertension Guideline and cardiovascular disease: The CHCN-BTH cohort study. Environ Res 2021; 199: 111356.
Du XH, Zhang Y, Liu C, et al. Fine particulate matter constituents and sub-clinical outcomes of cardiovascular diseases: A multi-center study in China. Sci Total Environ 2021; 759: 143555.
Shi WY, Chen C, Cui Q, et al. Sleep disturbance exacerbates the cardiac conduction abnormalities induced by persistent heavy ambient fine particulate matter pollution: A multi-center cross-sectional study. Sci Total Environ 2022; 838: 156472.
Zhang WJ, Gao M, Xiao X, et al. Long-term PM (0.1) exposure and human blood lipid metabolism: New insight from the 33-community study in China. Environ Pollut 2022; 303: 119171.
Liang XH, Chen JY, An XZ, et al. The impact of PM2.5 on children’s blood pressure growth curves: A prospective cohort study. Environ Int 2022; 158: 107012.
Li J, Dong YH, Song Y, et al. Long-term effects of PM (2.5) components on blood pressure and hypertension in Chinese children and adolescents. Environ Int 2022; 161: 107134 .
Yu K, Lv J, Qiu GK, et al. Cooking fuels and risk of all-cause and cardiopulmonary mortality in urban China: a prospective cohort study. Lancet Glob Health 2020; 8: e430−e439.
Meng WJ, Shen GF, Shen HZ, et al. Synergistic health benefits of household stove upgrading and energy switching in rural China. Environ Sci Technol 2021; 55: 14567−14575.
Cao X, Tang HS, Zheng CY, et al. Association of heating fuel types with mortality and cardiovascular events among non-smokers in China. Environ Pollut 2021; 291: 118207.
Qi JL, Ruan ZL, Qian ZM, et al. Potential gains in life expectancy by attaining daily ambient fine particulate matter pollution standards in mainland China: a modeling study based on nationwide data. PLoS Med 2020; 17: e1003027.
Cheng J, Tong D, Zhang Q, et al. Pathways of China’s PM (2.5) air quality 2015–2060 in the context of carbon neutrality. Natl Sci Rev 2021; 8: nwab078.
Tang R, Zhao J, Liu YF, et al. Air quality and health co-benefits of China’s carbon dioxide emissions peaking before 2030. Nat Commun 2022; 13: 1008.
Yang JZ, Zhao Y, Cao J, et al. Co-benefits of carbon and pollution control policies on air quality and health till 2030 in China. Environ Int 2021; 152: 106482.
FEEDBACK 
TOP