Hostname: page-component-669899f699-7tmb6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-04-30T18:45:11.692Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Ground-Stone Tools and Hunter-Gatherer Subsistence in Southwest Asia: Implications for the Transition to Farming

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Katherine I. Wright
Katherine I. Wright*
Affiliation:
Institute of Archaeology, University College London, 31-34 Gordon Square, London WC1H OPY, United Kingdom
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Ground-stone tools and hunter-gatherer subsistence in late Pleistocene southwest Asia are examined in light of ethnographic and experimental data on processing methods essential for consumption of various plant foods. In general, grinding and pounding appear to be labor-intensive processing methods. In particular, the labor required to make wild cereals edible has been widely underestimated, and wild cereals were unlikely to have been “attractive” to foragers except under stress conditions. Levantine ground-stone tools were probably used for processing diverse plants. The earliest occurrence of deep mortars coincides with the glacial maximum, camp reoccupations, the onset of increasingly territorial foraging, and the earliest presently known significant samples of wild cereals. Two major episodes of intensification in plant-food processing can be identified in the Levant, coinciding respectively with the earliest evidence for sedentism (12,800-11,500 B.P.) and the transition to farming (11,500-9600 B.P.). The latter episode was characterized by rising frequencies of grinding tools relative to pounding tools, and suggests attempts to maximize nutritional returns of plants harvested from the limited territories characteristic of sedentary foraging and early farming. This episode was probably encouraged by the Younger Dryas, when density and storability of foods may have outweighed considerations of processing costs.

Resumen

Resumen

Las henamientas de moler y la subsistencia de cazadores-recolectores en el Pleistoceno tardío del suroeste asiático se examinan bajo la luz de datos etnográficos y experimentales sobre los métodos de procesamiento esenciales para el consumo de varios tipos de plantas. En general, los métodos usados para moler y pulverizar requieren trabajo intensivo. En particular, el trabajo requerido para convertir cereales silvestres en comestibles ha sido sumamente subestimado; los cereales silvestres no fueron muy “atractivos” para los forajeros excepto bajo condiciones de presión. Las herramientas de moler levantinas probablemente fueron usadas para procesar diversas plantas. La ocurrencia más temprana de morteros hondos coincide con el máximo glacial, las reocupaciones de campamentos, la aparición de forraje territorial, y las muestras de cereales silvestres más tempranas que se conocen. Dos episodios importantes en la intensificación del procesamiento de plantas pueden identificarse en el Levante, coincidiendo respectivamente con la evidencia más temprana de sedentismo (12.800-11.500 A.P.) y con la transición hacia la agricultura (11.500-9600 B.P.). Este último episodio se caracterizó por frequencias crecientes de herramientas de moler en relación con herramienteas de pulverizar, y sugiere un intento de maximizar el rendimiento nutritivo de plantas cosechadas en los limitados territorios característicos del forraje sedentario y la agricultura temprana. Este episodio fue probablemente estimulado por el Dryas Reciente, cuando la densidad y capacidad de almacenamiento de comestibles habría sido más importante que los costos de procesamiento.

Type
Articles
Information
American Antiquity , Volume 59 , Issue 2 , April 1994 , pp. 238 - 263
Copyright
Copyright © The Society for American Archaeology 1994

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

References Cited

Anderson, P. 1992 Experimental Cultivation, Harvest, and Threshing of Wild Cereals and Their Relevance for Interpreting the Use of Epipaleolithic and Neolithic Artifacts. In Prehistoire de I'agriculture : Nouvelles approches experimentales et ethnographiques, edited by Anderson, P., pp. 179–209. Monographie du Centre de Recherches Archeologiques No. 6. Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris.Google Scholar
The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago (CAD) 1956-date The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Oriental Institute, University of Chicago, Chicago.Google Scholar
Bailey, C, and Danin, A. 1981 Bedouin Plant Utilization in the Sinai and Negev. Economic Botany 35 : 145–162.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baruch, U., and Bottema, S. 1991 Palynological Evidence for Climatic Changes in the Levant, ca. 17, 000-9, 000 B. P. In The Natufian Culture in the Levant, edited by Bar-Yosef, O. and Valla, F. R., pp. 11–20. Archaeological Series No. 1. International Monographs in Prehistory, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Bar-Yosef, O. 1970 The Epi-Paleolithic Cultures of Palestine. Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Department of Archaeology, Hebrew University, Jerusalem.Google Scholar
Bar-Yosef, O. 1991 The Early Neolithic of the Levant : Recent Advances. The Review of Archaeology 12(2) : 1–18.Google Scholar
Bar-Yosef, O., and Belfer-Cohen, A. 1989 The Origins of Sedentism and Farming Communities in the Southern Levant. Journal of World Prehistory 3 : 447–496.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bar-Yosef, O., and Belfer-Cohen, A. 1992 From Foraging to Farming in the Mediterranean Levant. In Transitions to Agriculture in Prehistory, edited by Gebauer, A. B. and Price, T. D., pp. 21-48. Monographs in World Archaeology No. 4. Prehistory Press, Madison.Google Scholar
Bar-Yosef, O., and Kislev, M. 1989 Early Farming Communities in the Jordan Valley. In Foraging and Farming, edited by Harris, D. R. and Hillman, G. C., pp. 632–642. Unwin Hyman, London.Google Scholar
Beals, R., and Hester, J. 1971 A New Ecological Typology of the California Indians. In The California Indians : A Source Book, edited by Heizer, R. and Whipple, M., pp. 73–83. University of California Press, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Belfer-Cohen, A. 1991 The Natufian in the Levant. Annual Review of Anthropology 20 : 167–186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Belfer-Cohen, A., Schepartz, L., and Arensburg, B. 1991 New Biological Data for the Natufian Populations in Israel. In The Natufian Culture in the Levant, edited by Bar-Yosef, O. and Valla, F. R., pp. 411–424. Archaelogical Series No. 1. International Monographs in Prehistory, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Bender, B. 1978 Gatherer-Hunter to Farmer : A Social Perspective. World Archaeology 10 : 361–392.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bergman, C. A. 1987 Ksar AMI, Lebanon : A Technological and Typological Analysis of Later Paleolithic Levels. BAR International Series 329. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Binford, L. 1979 Organization and Formation Processes : Looking at Curated Technologies. Journal of Anthropological Research 35 : 255–273.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Binford, L. 1980 Willow Smoke and Dogs’ Tails : Hunter-Gatherer Settlement Systems and Archaeological Site Formation. American Antiquity 45 : 4–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler, A. 1992 Pulse Agronomy : Traditional Systems and Implications for Early Cultivation. In Prehistoire de Vagriculture : Nouvelles approches experimentales et ethnographiques, edited by Anderson, P., pp. 67–78. Monographie du Centre de Recherches Archeologiques No. 6. Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris.Google Scholar
Byrd, B. 1989 The Natufian : Settlement Variability and Economic Adaptations in the Levant at the End of the Pleistocene. Journal of World Prehistory 3 : 159–197.Google Scholar
Cane, S. 1989 Australian Aboriginal Seed Grinding and Its Archaeological Record : A Case Study from the Western Desert. In Foraging and Farming, edited by Harris, D. R. and Hillman, G. C., pp. 99–119. Unwin Hyman, London.Google Scholar
Colledge, S. M. 1991 Investigations of Plant Remains Preserved in Epipaleolithic Sites in the Near East. In The Natufian Culture in the Levant, edited by Bar-Yosef, O. and Valla, F. R., pp. 391–398. Archaeological Series No. 1. International Monographs in Prehistory, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Doebley, J. F. 1984 Seeds of Wild Grasses : A Major Food of Southwestern Indians. Economic Botany 38 : 52–64.Google Scholar
Driver, H. E. 1953 The Acorn in North American Indian Diet. Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science 62 : 56–62.Google Scholar
Edwards, P. 1989 Problems of Recognising Earliest Sedentism : The Natufian Example. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 2 : 5–48.Google Scholar
Edwards, P. 1991 Wadi Hammeh 27 : An Early Natufian Site at Pella, Jordan. In The Natufian Culture in the Levant, edited by Bar-Yosef, O. and Valla, F. R., pp. 123–148. Archaeological Series No. 1. International Monographs in Prehistory, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Flannery, K. V. 1969 Origins and Ecological Effects of Early Domestication in Iran and the Near East. In The Domestication and Exploitation of Plants and Animals, edited by Ucko, P. and Dimbleby, G. W., pp. 73–100. Duckworth, London.Google Scholar
Fowler, D., and Fowler, C. 1971 Anthropology of the Numa. Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology Vol. 14. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. Google Scholar
Foxhall, L., and Forbes, H. 1982 The Role of Grain as a Staple in Classical Antiquity. Chiron 12 : 41–90.Google Scholar
Garrard, A. N., Colledge, S., Hunt, C., and Montague, R. 1988 Environment and Subsistence During the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene in the Azraq Basin. Paleorient 14(2) : 40–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goring-Morris, A. N. 1987 At the Edge : Terminal Pleistocene Hunter-Gatherers in the Negev and Sinai. BAR International Series 361. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Goring-Morris, A. N. 1991 The Harifian of the Southern Levant. In The Natufian Culture in the Levant, edited by Bar-Yosef, O. and Valla, F. R., pp. 173–216. Archaeological Series No. 1. International Monographs in Prehistory, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Gregoire, J-P. 1992 Les grandes unites de transformation des cereales. In Prehistoire de I'agriculture : Nouvelles approches experimentales et ethnographiques, edited by Anderson, P., pp. 321–339. Monographic du Centre de Recherches Archeologiques No. 6. Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris.Google Scholar
Harlan, J. 1967 A Wild Wheat Harvest in Turkey. Archaeology 20 : 197–201.Google Scholar
Harlan, J. 1992 Wild Grass Seed Harvesting and Implications for Domestication. In Prehistoire de I ‘agriculture : Nouvelles approches experimentales et ethnographiques, edited by Anderson, P., pp. 21–27. Monographie du Centre de Recherches Archeologiques No. 6. Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris.Google Scholar
Harris, D. 1984 Ethnohistorical Evidence for the Exploitation of Wild Grasses and Forbs : Its Scope and Archaeological Implications. In Plants and Ancient Man, edited by van Zeist, W. and Casparie, W., pp. 63–69. Balkema, Rotterdam.Google Scholar
Harris, D. 1990 Settling Down and Breaking Ground : Rethinking the Neolithic J?evo/««'o«. Twaalfde Kroon-Voordracht, Gehouden voor de Stichting Nederlands Museum voor Anthropologic en Praehistorie te Amsterdam. Nederlands Museum, Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Hather, J. 1991 The Identification of Charred Archaeological Remains of Vegetative Parenchymous Tissues. Journal of Archaeological Science 18 : 661–675.Google Scholar
Hedges, R., Housley, R., Bronk, C., and Klinken, G. van 1992 Radiocarbon Dates from the Oxford AMS System. Archaeometry 34 : 141–165.Google Scholar
Henry, D. O. 1989 From Foraging to Agriculture : The Levant at the End of the Ice Age. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Hersh, T. 1981 Grinding Stones and Food Processing Techniques of the Neolithic Societies of Turkey and Greece. Ph. D. dissertation, Columbia University, New York. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Hillman, G. C. 1984a Traditional Husbandry and Processing of Archaic Cereals in Recent Times, Part I : The Glume Wheats. Bulletin on Sumerian Agriculture 1 : 114–152. Faculty of Oriental Studies, University of Cambridge, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Hillman, G. C. 1984b Interpretation of Archaeological Plant Remains : The Application of Ethnographic Models from Turkey. In Plants and Ancient Man, edited by van Zeist, W. and Casparie, W., pp. 1–42. Balkema, Rotterdam.Google Scholar
Hillman, G. C, and Davies, M. 1990 Measured Domestication Rates in Crops of Wild-Type Wheats and Barley and Their Archaeological Implications. Journal of World Prehistory 4 : 157–222.Google Scholar
Hillman, G. C, Colledge, S. M., and Harris, D. R. 1989 Plant-Food Economy During the Epipaleolithic Period at Tell Abu Hureyra, Syria : Dietary Diversity, Seasonality and Modes of Exploitation. In Foraging and Farming, edited by Harris, D. R. and Hillman, G. C., pp. 240–268. Unwin Hyman, London.Google Scholar
Hillman, G. C, Madeyska, E., and Hather, J. 1989 Wild Plant Foods and Diet at Late Paleolithic Wadi Kubbaniya : Evidence from Charred Remains. In The Prehistory of Wadi Kubbaniya, vol. 2, edited by Wendorf, F., Schild, R. and Close, A., pp. 162–242. Southern Methodist University Press, Dallas.Google Scholar
Hillman, G. C, Wales, S., McLaren, F., Evans, J., and Butler, A. 1993 Identifying Problematic Remains of Ancient Plant Foods : A Comparison of the Role of Chemical, Histological and Morphological Criteria. World Archaeology 25 : 94–121.Google Scholar
Hoebel, E. A. 1960 The Cheyennes. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York.Google Scholar
Hopf, M., and Bar-Yosef, O. 1987 Plant Remains from Hayonim Cave, Western Galilee. Paleorient 13(1) : 117–120.Google Scholar
Jones, C. E. R. 1989 Archaeochemistry : Fact or Fancy? In The Prehistory of Wadi Kubbaniya, vol. 2, edited by Wendorf, F., Schild, R, and Close, A., pp. 260–266. Southern Methodist University Press, Dallas.Google Scholar
Kaufman, D. 1989 Observations on the Geometric Kebaran : A View from Neve David. In Investigations in South Levantine Prehistory, edited by Bar-Yosef, and Vandermeersch, B., pp. 275–286. BAR International Series 497. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Keeley, L. R. 1992 The Use of Plant Foods Among Hunter-Gatherers : A Cross-Cultural Survey. In Prehistoire de I'agriculture : Nouvelles approches experimentales et ethnographiques, edited by Anderson, P., pp. 39–38. Monographie du Centre de Recherches Archeologiques No. 6. Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris.Google Scholar
Kelly, I. 1934 Ethnography of the Surprise Valley Paiute. University of California Publications in American Anthropology and Ethnology 31 : 67–210. University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Kislev, M. 1984 Emergence of Wheat Agriculture. Paleorient 10(2) : 61–70.Google Scholar
Kislev, M., and Bar-Yosef, O. 1988 The Legumes : The Earliest Domesticated Plants in the Near East? Current Anthropology 29 : 175–179.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kislev, M., Nadel, D., and Carmi, I. 1992 Epipaleolithic (19, 000 B. P.) Cereal and Fruit Diet at Ohalo II, Sea of Galilee, Israel. Review of Paleobotany and Palynology 73 : 161–166.Google Scholar
Kraybill, N. 1977 Pre-agricultural Tools for the Preparation of Foods in the Old World. In Origins of Agriculture, edited by Reed, C. A., pp. 485–521. Mouton, The Hague.Google Scholar
Kroeber, A. L. 1925 Handbook of the Indians of California. Bulletin No. 78. Bureau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. Google Scholar
Lechevallier, M., Philibert, D., Ronen, A., and Samzun, A. 1989 Une occupation khiamienne et sultanienne a Hatoula? Paleorient 15(1) : 1–10.Google Scholar
Lee, R. B. 1979 The IKung San. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Legge, A. J. 1986 Seeds of Discontent : Accelerator Dates on Some Charred Plant Remains from the Kebaran and Natufian Cultures. Archaeological Results from Accelerator Dating, edited by Gowlett, J. and Hedges, R., pp. 13–22. Monograph No. 11. Oxford University Committee for Archaeology, Oxford.Google Scholar
McCarthy, H., Hicks, R., and Blount, C. 1985 A Functional Analysis of Bedrock Mortars : Western Mono Food Processing in the Southern Sierra Nevada. Report submitted to Pacific Gas and Electric Company, Contract #Z-16-0030-84. Theodoratus Cultural Research, Inc., Fair Oaks, California.Google Scholar
McCorriston, J., and Hole, F. 1991 The Ecology of Seasonal Stress and the Origins of Agriculture in the Near East. American Anthropologist 93 : 46–69.Google Scholar
McLaren, F. 1993 Plums from the Palaeolithic Site of Douara Cave, Syria : A Chemical Analysis. In Proceedings of the International Workgroup of Palaeobotanists, Kiel, Germany, 1992, in press.Google Scholar
Marks, A. E. 1976 Ein Aqev : A Late Levantine Upper Paleolithic Site in the Nahal Aqev. In Prehistory and Paleoenvironments in the Central Negev, Israel, vol. I, edited by Marks, A. E., pp. 227–291. Southern Methodist University Press, Dallas.Google Scholar
Mason, S. 1992 Acorns in Human Subsistence. Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Institute of Archaeology, University College, London.Google Scholar
Meurers-Balke, J., and Luning, J. 1992 Some Aspects and Experiments Concerning the Processing of Glume Wheats. In Prehistoire de I'agriculture : Nouvelles approches experimentales et ethnographiques, edited by Anderson, P., pp. 341–362. Monographie du Centre de Recherches Archeologiques No. 6. Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris.Google Scholar
Moore, A. M. T. 1979 A Pre-Neolithic Farmer's Village on the Euphrates. Scientific American 241 : 50–58.Google Scholar
Moore, A. M. T. 1985 The Development of Neolithic Societies in the Levant. In Advances in World Archaeology, vol. 4, edited by Close, A., pp. 1–69. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Moore, A. M. T. 1991 Abu Hureyra 1 and the Antecedents of Agriculture on the Middle Euphrates. In The Natufian Culture in the Levant, edited by Bar-Yosef, O. and Valla, F. R., pp. 277–294. Archaeological Series No. 1. International Monographs in Prehistory, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Moore, A., and Hillman, G. C. 1992 The Pleistocene to Holocene Transition and Human Economy in Southwest Asia : The Impact of the Younger Dryas. American Antiquity 57 : 482–494.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Noy, T. 1979 Stone Cupholes and Querns from Gilgal I : A Pre-pottery Neolithic A Site in Israel. Paleorient 5(1) : 233–238.Google Scholar
O. Connell, J., and Hawkes, K. 1981 Alyawara Plant Use and Optimal Foraging Theory. Hunter-Gatherer Foraging Strategies , edited by Winterhalder, B. and Smith, E. A., pp. 99–125. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
O. Connell, J., Latz, P., and Barnett, P. 1983 Traditional and Modern Plant Use Among the Alyawara of Central Australia. Economic Botany 37 : 80–109.Google Scholar
O. Dea, K., Nestel, P., and Antonoff, L. 1980 Physical Factors Influencing Postprandial Glucose and Insulin Responses to Starch. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 33 : 760–765.Google Scholar
Olszewski, D. 1993 Subsistence Ecology in the Mediterranean Forest : Implications for the Origins of Cultivation in the Epipaleolithic Southern Levant. American Anthropologist 95 : 420–435.Google Scholar
Oppenheim, A. L. 1967 Letters from Mesopotamia. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Payler, D., Pomare, E., Heaton, K., and Harvey, R. 1975 The Effect of Wheat Bran on Intestinal Transit. Gut 16 : 209–213.Google Scholar
Peterson, N. 1968 The Pestle and Mortar : An Ethnographic Analogy for Archaeology from Arnhem Land. Mankind 6 : 567–570.Google Scholar
Petruso, K., and Wickens, J. 1984 The Acorn in Aboriginal Subsistence in Eastern North America : A Report on Miscellaneous Experiments. In Experiments and Observations on Aboriginal Wild Plant Food Utilization in Eastern North America, edited by Munson, P. J., pp. 360–378. Prehistory Research Series Vol. VI. Indiana Historical Society, Indianapolis.Google Scholar
Postgate, N. 1984 Processing of Cereals in the Cuneiform Record. Bulletin on Sumerian Agriculture 1 : 103–113. Faculty of Oriental Studies, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, England.Google Scholar
Redding, R. 1988 A General Explanation of Subsistence Change : From Hunting and Gathering to Food Production. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 7 : 56–97.Google Scholar
Ronen, A., and Vandermeersch, B. 1972 The Upper Paleolithic Sequence in the Cave of Qafza (Israel). Quaternaria 16 : 189–202.Google Scholar
Ronen, A., Kaufman, D., Gophna, R., Bakler, N., Smith, P., and Amiel, A. 1975 The Epi-paleolithic Site Hefziba, Central Coastal Plain of Israel. Quartar 26 : 53–72.Google Scholar
Runnels, C. 1981 A Diachronic Study and Economic Analysis of Millstones from the Argolid. Ph. D. dissertation, Indiana University, Bloomington. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Russell, K. 1988 After Eden : Behavioral Ecology of Early Food Production in the Near East and North Africa. BAR International Series 391. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Salonen, A. 1965 Die Hausgerate der alten Mesopotamier nach sumerisch-akkadischen Quellen. Annales Academiae Scientiarum Fennicae B139, Helsinki.Google Scholar
Shipek, F. 1989 An Example of Intensive Plant Husbandry : The Kumeyaay of Southern California. In Foraging and Farming, edited by Harris, D. R. and Hillman, G. C., pp. 159–170. Unwin Hyman, London.Google Scholar
Sievert, A. 1992 Root and Tuber Resources : Experimental Plant Processing and Resulting Microwear on Chipped Stone Tools. In Prehistoire de I'agriculture : Nouvelles approches experimentales et ethnographiques, edited by Anderson, P., pp. 55–66. Monographie du Centre de Recherches Archeologiques No. 6. Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris.Google Scholar
Sillen, A., and Lee-Thorp, J. A. 1991 Dietary Change in the Late Natufian. In The Natufian Culture in the Levant, edited by Bar-Yosef, O. and Valla, F. R., pp. 399–410. Archaeological Series No. 1. International Monographs in Prehistory, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Sillen, A., Sealy, J., J. Lee-Thorp, Horwitz, L., and Merwe, N. van der 1989 Trace Element and Isotope Research in Progress : Implications for Near Eastern Archaeology. In People and Culture in Change, edited by Hershkovitz, I., pp. 321–334. BAR International Series 508 (ii). British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Simms, S. 1987 Behavioral Ecology and Hunter-Gatherer Foraging : An Example from the Great Basin. BAR International Series 381. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Smith, M. A. 1989 Seed Gathering in Inland Australia : Current Evidence from Seed-Grinders on the Antiquity of the Ethnohistorical Pattern of Exploitation. In Foraging and Farming, edited by Harris, D. R. and Hillman, G. C., pp. 305–317. Unwin Hyman, London.Google Scholar
Smith, P. 1973 Family Burials at Hayonim. Paleorient 1 : 69–72.Google Scholar
Smith, P. 1989 Paleonutrition and Subsistence Patterns in the Natufians. In People and Culture in Change, edited by Hershkovitz, I., pp. 375–384. BAR International Series 508 (ii). British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Smith, P. 1991 The Dental Evidence for Nutritional Status in the Natufians. In The Natufian Culture in the Levant, edited by Bar-Yosef, O. and Valla, F. R., pp. 425–432. Archaeological Series No. 1. International Monographs in Prehistory, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Stahl, A. 1989 Plant-Food Processing : Implications for Dietary Quality. In Foraging and Farming, edited by Harris, D. R. and Hillman, G. C., pp. 171–194. Unwin Hyman, London.Google Scholar
Steward, J. 1934 Ethnography of the Owens Valley Paiute. University of California Publications in American Anthropology and Ethnology 33 : 233–350. University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Sumner, W. 1967 A Typology of Middle Eastern Saddle Querns. Unpublished Master's thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Tanaka, J. 1976 Subsistence Ecology of the Central Kalahari San. Kalahari Hunter-Gatherers, edited by Lee, R. and DeVore, I., pp. 98–119. Harvard University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Tchernov, E. 1991 Biological Evidence for Human Sedentism in Southwest Asia During the Natufian. In The Natufian Culture in the Levant, edited by Bar-Yosef, O. and Valla, F. R., pp. 315–340. Archaeological Series No. 1. International Monographs in Prehistory, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Unger-Hamilton, R. 1992 Experiments in Harvesting Wild Cereals and Other Plants. In Prehistoire de I'agriculture : Nouvelles approches experimentales et ethnographiques, edited by Anderson, P., pp. 211–224. Monographie du Centre de Recherches Archeologiques No. 6. Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris.Google Scholar
Valla, F., Plisson, H., and Buxo i Capdevila, R. 1989 Notes preliminaires sur les fouilles en cours sur la terrasse d'Hayonim. Paleorient 15(1) : 245–258.Google Scholar
Vincent, A. 1985 Plant Foods in Savanna Environments : A Preliminary Report of Tubers Eaten by the Hadza of Northern Tanzania. World Archaeology 17 : 131–148.Google Scholar
Winterhalder, B. 1981 Optimal Foraging Strategies and Hunter-Gatherer Research in Anthropology : Theory and Models. In Hunter-Gatherer Foraging Strategies, edited by Winterhalder, B. and Smith, E. A., pp. 13–35. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Wright, K. 1991 The Origins and Development of Ground Stone Assemblages in Late Pleistocene Southwest Asia. Paleorient 17(1) : 19–45.Google Scholar
Wright, K. 1992a A Classification System for Ground Stone Tools from the Prehistoric Levant. Paleorient 18(2) : 53–81.Google Scholar
Wright, K. 1992b Ground Stone Assemblage Variations and Subsistence Strategies in the Levant, 22, 000-5, 500 B. P. Ph. D. Dissertation, Yale University, New Haven. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Wright, K. 1993 Early Holocene Ground Stone Assemblages in the Levant. Levant XXV : 93–111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wright, K., Bar-Yosef, O., Evans, J., Hillman, G. C., and McLaren, F. 1993 The Potential of Chemical Analysis of Organic Residues on Ground-Stone Tools in Reconstructing Prehistoric Diet in Southwest Asia. Proposal to the National Science Foundation (SBR 93-21601), Anthropology Program. Manuscript on file, National Science Foundation, Washington, D. C. Google Scholar
Yellen, J. 1976 Settlement Patterns of the !Kung : An Archaeological Perspective. In Kalahari Hunter-Gatherers, edited by Lee, R. and DeVore, I., pp. 47–72. Harvard University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Yellen, J. 1977 Archaeological Approaches to the Present. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Zohary, D. 1969 The Progenitors of Wheat and Barley in Relation to Domestication and Agricultural Dispersal in the Old World. In The Domestication and Exploitation of Plants and Animals, edited by Ucko, P. and Dimbleby, G. W., pp. 47–66. Duckworth, London.Google Scholar
Zohary, D. 1992 Domestication of the Near Eastern Crop Assemblage. In Prehistoire del ‘agriculture : Nouvelles approches experimentales et ethnographiques, edited by Anderson, P., pp. 81–86. Monographie du Centre de Recherches Archeologiques No. 6. Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris.Google Scholar
Zohary, D., and Hopf, M. 1988 Domestication of Plants in the Old World. Clarendon Press, Oxford.Google Scholar