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EFFECT OF TIME INVESTMENT IN CHILDREN ON THE LABOR MARKET GENDER GAP IN EARNINGS

Yıl 2017, Cilt: 35 Sayı: 2, 121 - 151, 30.06.2017

Mehmet Ali Soytaş

https://doi.org/10.17065/huniibf.324814

Öz

This
paper attempts to address that both the educational advances of women are not
proportionally reflected in the earnings gap as expected and that these more
educated women are not gaining greater work experience than their less educated
predecessors. The goal is to estimate a model using data on females and their
children to understand how much of their time females use to invest in their
children and how it varies depending on demographic characteristics. The
dynastic framework provides a natural way to aggregate the adult outcomes of
children as it is measured by their next generation valuation function. This
serves as a good proxy for the expected returns from investing in children.
Female’s valuation function incorporates both the loss of income due to not
working and the returns from the children who achieves better prospects. To the
extent that later compensates the loss from the former, females will not
increase the amount of time they spend working in the labor market. This
trade-off however depends on education, making it on the margin for highly
educated females who can do superior in both. Estimated model and the policy
simulations based on the estimated model find that maternal time investment is
an important channel affecting the labor supply decision of women and time
investment plays a significant role in children’s adult outcomes.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Female labor supply time investment in children intergenerational transfers gender gap human capital

Kaynakça

  • Altug, S., R.A. Miller (1998), “The Effect of Work Experience on Female Wages and Labour Supply”, Review of Economic Studies, 65, 45-85.
  • Alvarez, F. (1999), Social Mobility, "The Barro-Becker Children Meet the Laitner-Loury Dynasties", Review of Economic Dynamics, 2(1), 65-103.
  • Barro, R. J., G.S. Becker (1988), “A Reformulation of the Economic Theory of Fertility”, Quarterly Journal of Economics, 103(1), 1-25.
  • Barro, R.J., G.S. Becker (1989), “Fertility Choice in a Model of Economic Growth”, Econometrica, 57(2), 481-501.
  • Becker, G.S. (1965), “Theory of the Allocation of Time”, The Economic Journal, 75(299), 493-517.
  • Becker, G. S. (1974), “A Theory of Social Interactions”, Journal of Political Economy, 82(6), 1063-1093.
  • Becker, G.S. (1981), “A Treatise on the Family”, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
  • Becker, G.S., N. Tomes (1986), “Human Capital and the Rise and Fall of Families”, Journal of Labor Economics, 4(3), 1-39.
  • Bernal, R. (2008), “The Effect of Maternal Employment and Child Care on Children’s Cognitive Development”, International Economic Review, 49(4), 1173-1209.
  • Blau, F. D, L. M. Kahn (2000), "Gender Differences in Pay", Journal of Economic Perspectives, 14, 75-99.
  • Carneiro, P., J. Heckman (2003), “Inequality in America: What Role for Human Capital Policy?”, J. Heckman and A. Krueger, eds., Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 77-240.
  • Carneiro, P., J. Heckman, D. Masterov (2005), “Labor Market Discrimination and Racial Differences in Premarket Factors”, Journal of Law and Economics, 48, 1-39.
  • Chamberlain, G. (1986), "Asymptotic Efficiency in Semiparametric Models with Censoring", Journal of Econometrics, 32(2), 189-218.
  • Cunha, F., J. Heckman (2007), “The Technology of Skill Formation”, American Economic Review, 97(2), 31-47.
  • Cunha, F., J. Heckman (2008), “Formulating, Identifying and Estimating the Technology of Cognitive and Noncognitive Skill Formation”, Journal of Human Resources, 43(4), 738-782.
  • Cunha, F., J. Heckman (2009), “The Economics and Psychology of Inequality and Human Development”, Journal of the European Economic Association, 7(2-3), 320-364.
  • Cunha F., J. Heckman, L. J. Lochner, D. V. Masterov (2006), "Interpreting the Evidence on Life Cycle Skill Formation", In Handbook of the Economics of Education, edited by E. Hanushek and F. Welch. Amsterdam: North Holland, Chapter 12, 697-812.
  • Cunha, F., J. Heckman, S. Schennach (2010), “Estimating the Technology of Cognitive and Noncognitive Skill Formation”, Econometrica, 78(3), 883-931.
  • Datcher-Loury, L. (1988), “Effects of Mother’s Home Time on Children’s Schooling”, The Review of Economics and Statistics, 70(3), 367-373.
  • Del Boca, D., C. Flinn, C., M. Wiswall (2014), “Household Choices and Child Development”, Review of Economic Studies, 81(1), 137-185.
  • Gayle, G-L., L. Golan (2012), “Estimating a Dynamic Adverse Selection Model: Labour Force Experience and the Changing Gender Earnings Gap, 1968-1997”, The Review of Economic Studies, 79(1), 227-267.
  • Gayle, G-L, C. Viauroux (2007), "Root-N Consistent Semi-parametric Estimators of a Dynamic Panel Sample Selection Model" Journal of Econometrics, 141(1), 179-212.
  • Gayle, G-L., L. Golan, M.A. Soytas (2015a), “What Accounts for the Racial Gap in Time Allocation and Intergenerational Transmission of Human Capital?”, St. Louis FED Working Paper 2015-018A, St. Louis, MO.
  • Gayle, G-L., L. Golan, M.A. Soytas (2015b), “Estimation of Dynastic Lifecycle Discrete Choice Models”, St. Louis FED Working Paper 2015-020A, St. Louis, MO.
  • Gayle, G-L., L. Golan, M.A. Soytas (2015c), “What is the source of the intergenerational correlation in earnings?”, St. Louis FED Working Paper 2015-019A, St. Louis, MO.
  • Guryan, J., E. Hurst, M. Kearney (2008), “Parental Education and Parental Time With Children”, Journal of Economic Perspectives, 22(3), 23-46.
  • Heckman, J. (2008), “Schools, Skills and Synapses”, Economic Inquiry, 46(3), 289--324.
  • Heckman J., D.V. Masterov (2007), "The Productivity Argument for Investing in Young Children", Review of Agricultural Economics, 29(3), 446-493.
  • Heckman, J., S. Mosso (2014), “The Economics of Human Development and Social Mobility”, Annual Review of Economics, 6, 689-733.
  • Heckman, J., R. Pinto, P. Savelyev (2013), “Understanding the Mechanisms through Which an Influential Early Childhood Program Boosted Adult Outcomes”, American Economic Review, 103(6), 2052-86.
  • Heckman, J., S.H. Moon, R. Pinto, P. Savelyev, A. Yavitz (2010a), “Analyzing Social Experiments as Implemented: A Reexamination of the Evidence from the HighScope Perry Preschool Program”, Quantitative Economics, 1(1), 1-46.
  • Heckman, J., S.H. Moon, R. Pinto, P. Savelyev, A. Yavitz (2010b), “The Rate Of Return to the Highscope Perry Preschool Program”, Journal of Public Economics, 94, 114-128.
  • Hotz, V.J., F.E. Kydland, G.L. Sedlacek (1988), “Intertemporal substitution and labor supply”, Econometrica, 56, 335-360.
  • Hotz, V.J., R.A. Miller (1988), “An Empirical Analysis of Life Cycle Fertility and Female Labor Supply”, Econometrica, 56(1), 91-119.
  • Hotz, V.J., R.A. Miller (1993), “Conditional Choice Probabilities and the Estimation of Dynamic Models”, The Review of Economic Studies, 60, 497-530.
  • Hotz, V.J., R.A. Miller, S. Sanders, J. Smith (1994), “A Simulation Estimator for Dynamic Models of Discrete Choice”, The Review of Economic Studies, 61, 265-289.
  • Lee, S.Y., A. Seshadri (2014), “On the intergenerational transmission of economic status”, Unpublished manuscript, University of Wisconsin--Madison, Department of Economics.
  • Loury, G.C. (1981), "Intergenerational Transfers and the Distribution of Earnings", Econometrica, 49(4), 843-867. MaCurdy, T.E. (1981), "An Empirical Model of Labor Supply in a Life-Cycle Setting", Journal of Political Economy, 89, 1059-1085.
  • Newey, W.K. (1994), "The Asymptotic Variance of Semiparametric Estimators", Econometrica, 62(6), 1349-1382.
  • Nijman T., M. Verbeek (1992), "Nonresponse in Panel Data: The Impact on Estimates of a Life Cycle Consumption Function", Journal of Applied Econometrics, 7(3), 243-257.
  • Rios-Rull, J-V., V. Sanchez-Marcos (2002), "College Attainment of Women", Review of Economic Dynamics, 5, 965-998.
  • Rust, J. (1987), “Optimal Replacement of GMC Bus Engines: An Empirical Model of Harold Zurcher”, Econometrica, 55, 999-1033.
  • Sayer, L.C., S.M. Bianchi, J.P. Robinson (2004), “Are Parents Investing Less in Children? Trends in Mothers’ and Fathers’ Time with Children”, American Journal of Sociology, 110(1), 1-43.
  • Smith, J. P., M. Ward (1989), "Women in the Labor Market and in the Family", Journal of Economic Perspectives, 3, 9-23.
  • Soytas, M.A. (2011), “Essays on Life Cycle Dynastic Discrete Choice Models”, (Doktora Tezi), University of Pittsburgh.
  • Todd, E.P., K.D. Wolpin (2003), “On the Specification and Estimation of the Production Function for Cognitive Achievement”, The Economic Journal, 113, 1-218.
  • Wolpin, K. (1984), “An Estimable Dynamic Stochastic Model of Fertility and Child Mortality”, Journal of Political Economy, 92, 852-874.
  • Zabel, J. E. (1992), "Estimating fixed and random effects models with selectivity", Economics Letters, 40(3), 269-272.

ÇOCUĞA YAPILAN ZAMAN YATIRIMLARININ İŞ GÜCÜ PİYASASINDAKİ KADIN-ERKEK ÜCRET FARKLILIĞINA ETKİLERİ

Yıl 2017, Cilt: 35 Sayı: 2, 121 - 151, 30.06.2017

Mehmet Ali Soytaş

https://doi.org/10.17065/huniibf.324814

Öz

Bu
çalışma kadınların eğitimde elde ettikleri ilerlemelere karşın, bunun
ücretlerine neden beklenen oranda yansımadığını ve eğitim seviyesi artmış
kadınların neden daha fazla iş deneyimi edinmediklerini anlamayı
hedeflemektedir. Amaç kadınların zamanlarının ne kadarını çocuklarına zaman
yatırımı olarak kullandıklarının ve bunun demografik özelliklerle nasıl
değiştiğinin anlaşılması için, kadın ve çocuklarının oluşturduğu bir veri seti
kullanarak model tahmini yapmaktır. Nesiller arası yapı, çocukların yetişkin
çıktılarını toplulaştırmak için doğal bir yol sağlar çünkü bu çıktılar modelde
gelecek jenerasyondaki çocukların değer fonksiyonu ile ölçülür. Bu ölçüt,
çocuklara yapılan yatırımların beklenen getirisi için iyi bir temsil sağlar.
Kadının değer fonksiyonu, hem kendi çalışmadığı durumdaki gelir kaybını, hem de
yatırım yaptığı durumda çocuklarına dair beklentileri içerir. Bu iki faktörden
ikincisinin, ilkinden kaynaklanan kaybı telafi ettiği ölçüde, kadınlar iş gücü
piyasasında çalışmaya harcadıkları zamanı arttırmayacaklardır. Bu ödünleşme
aynı zamanda eğitime de dayalıdır, dolayısıyla her ikisinde de iyi olabilecek
eğitimli kadınlar için durumu daha da marjinal hale getirmektedir. Tahmin
edilen model ve politika simülasyonları, zaman yatırımının kadınların iş gücü
tercihini etkileyen önemli bir kanal olduğunu ve zaman yatırımının çocukların
gelecekteki çıktılarını etkilemede önemli bir rol oynadığını bulunmuştur.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Kadın iş gücü çocuklara zaman yatırımı nesiller arası transferler kadın-erkek ücret farklılığı beşeri sermaye

Kaynakça

  • Altug, S., R.A. Miller (1998), “The Effect of Work Experience on Female Wages and Labour Supply”, Review of Economic Studies, 65, 45-85.
  • Alvarez, F. (1999), Social Mobility, "The Barro-Becker Children Meet the Laitner-Loury Dynasties", Review of Economic Dynamics, 2(1), 65-103.
  • Barro, R. J., G.S. Becker (1988), “A Reformulation of the Economic Theory of Fertility”, Quarterly Journal of Economics, 103(1), 1-25.
  • Barro, R.J., G.S. Becker (1989), “Fertility Choice in a Model of Economic Growth”, Econometrica, 57(2), 481-501.
  • Becker, G.S. (1965), “Theory of the Allocation of Time”, The Economic Journal, 75(299), 493-517.
  • Becker, G. S. (1974), “A Theory of Social Interactions”, Journal of Political Economy, 82(6), 1063-1093.
  • Becker, G.S. (1981), “A Treatise on the Family”, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
  • Becker, G.S., N. Tomes (1986), “Human Capital and the Rise and Fall of Families”, Journal of Labor Economics, 4(3), 1-39.
  • Bernal, R. (2008), “The Effect of Maternal Employment and Child Care on Children’s Cognitive Development”, International Economic Review, 49(4), 1173-1209.
  • Blau, F. D, L. M. Kahn (2000), "Gender Differences in Pay", Journal of Economic Perspectives, 14, 75-99.
  • Carneiro, P., J. Heckman (2003), “Inequality in America: What Role for Human Capital Policy?”, J. Heckman and A. Krueger, eds., Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 77-240.
  • Carneiro, P., J. Heckman, D. Masterov (2005), “Labor Market Discrimination and Racial Differences in Premarket Factors”, Journal of Law and Economics, 48, 1-39.
  • Chamberlain, G. (1986), "Asymptotic Efficiency in Semiparametric Models with Censoring", Journal of Econometrics, 32(2), 189-218.
  • Cunha, F., J. Heckman (2007), “The Technology of Skill Formation”, American Economic Review, 97(2), 31-47.
  • Cunha, F., J. Heckman (2008), “Formulating, Identifying and Estimating the Technology of Cognitive and Noncognitive Skill Formation”, Journal of Human Resources, 43(4), 738-782.
  • Cunha, F., J. Heckman (2009), “The Economics and Psychology of Inequality and Human Development”, Journal of the European Economic Association, 7(2-3), 320-364.
  • Cunha F., J. Heckman, L. J. Lochner, D. V. Masterov (2006), "Interpreting the Evidence on Life Cycle Skill Formation", In Handbook of the Economics of Education, edited by E. Hanushek and F. Welch. Amsterdam: North Holland, Chapter 12, 697-812.
  • Cunha, F., J. Heckman, S. Schennach (2010), “Estimating the Technology of Cognitive and Noncognitive Skill Formation”, Econometrica, 78(3), 883-931.
  • Datcher-Loury, L. (1988), “Effects of Mother’s Home Time on Children’s Schooling”, The Review of Economics and Statistics, 70(3), 367-373.
  • Del Boca, D., C. Flinn, C., M. Wiswall (2014), “Household Choices and Child Development”, Review of Economic Studies, 81(1), 137-185.
  • Gayle, G-L., L. Golan (2012), “Estimating a Dynamic Adverse Selection Model: Labour Force Experience and the Changing Gender Earnings Gap, 1968-1997”, The Review of Economic Studies, 79(1), 227-267.
  • Gayle, G-L, C. Viauroux (2007), "Root-N Consistent Semi-parametric Estimators of a Dynamic Panel Sample Selection Model" Journal of Econometrics, 141(1), 179-212.
  • Gayle, G-L., L. Golan, M.A. Soytas (2015a), “What Accounts for the Racial Gap in Time Allocation and Intergenerational Transmission of Human Capital?”, St. Louis FED Working Paper 2015-018A, St. Louis, MO.
  • Gayle, G-L., L. Golan, M.A. Soytas (2015b), “Estimation of Dynastic Lifecycle Discrete Choice Models”, St. Louis FED Working Paper 2015-020A, St. Louis, MO.
  • Gayle, G-L., L. Golan, M.A. Soytas (2015c), “What is the source of the intergenerational correlation in earnings?”, St. Louis FED Working Paper 2015-019A, St. Louis, MO.
  • Guryan, J., E. Hurst, M. Kearney (2008), “Parental Education and Parental Time With Children”, Journal of Economic Perspectives, 22(3), 23-46.
  • Heckman, J. (2008), “Schools, Skills and Synapses”, Economic Inquiry, 46(3), 289--324.
  • Heckman J., D.V. Masterov (2007), "The Productivity Argument for Investing in Young Children", Review of Agricultural Economics, 29(3), 446-493.
  • Heckman, J., S. Mosso (2014), “The Economics of Human Development and Social Mobility”, Annual Review of Economics, 6, 689-733.
  • Heckman, J., R. Pinto, P. Savelyev (2013), “Understanding the Mechanisms through Which an Influential Early Childhood Program Boosted Adult Outcomes”, American Economic Review, 103(6), 2052-86.
  • Heckman, J., S.H. Moon, R. Pinto, P. Savelyev, A. Yavitz (2010a), “Analyzing Social Experiments as Implemented: A Reexamination of the Evidence from the HighScope Perry Preschool Program”, Quantitative Economics, 1(1), 1-46.
  • Heckman, J., S.H. Moon, R. Pinto, P. Savelyev, A. Yavitz (2010b), “The Rate Of Return to the Highscope Perry Preschool Program”, Journal of Public Economics, 94, 114-128.
  • Hotz, V.J., F.E. Kydland, G.L. Sedlacek (1988), “Intertemporal substitution and labor supply”, Econometrica, 56, 335-360.
  • Hotz, V.J., R.A. Miller (1988), “An Empirical Analysis of Life Cycle Fertility and Female Labor Supply”, Econometrica, 56(1), 91-119.
  • Hotz, V.J., R.A. Miller (1993), “Conditional Choice Probabilities and the Estimation of Dynamic Models”, The Review of Economic Studies, 60, 497-530.
  • Hotz, V.J., R.A. Miller, S. Sanders, J. Smith (1994), “A Simulation Estimator for Dynamic Models of Discrete Choice”, The Review of Economic Studies, 61, 265-289.
  • Lee, S.Y., A. Seshadri (2014), “On the intergenerational transmission of economic status”, Unpublished manuscript, University of Wisconsin--Madison, Department of Economics.
  • Loury, G.C. (1981), "Intergenerational Transfers and the Distribution of Earnings", Econometrica, 49(4), 843-867. MaCurdy, T.E. (1981), "An Empirical Model of Labor Supply in a Life-Cycle Setting", Journal of Political Economy, 89, 1059-1085.
  • Newey, W.K. (1994), "The Asymptotic Variance of Semiparametric Estimators", Econometrica, 62(6), 1349-1382.
  • Nijman T., M. Verbeek (1992), "Nonresponse in Panel Data: The Impact on Estimates of a Life Cycle Consumption Function", Journal of Applied Econometrics, 7(3), 243-257.
  • Rios-Rull, J-V., V. Sanchez-Marcos (2002), "College Attainment of Women", Review of Economic Dynamics, 5, 965-998.
  • Rust, J. (1987), “Optimal Replacement of GMC Bus Engines: An Empirical Model of Harold Zurcher”, Econometrica, 55, 999-1033.
  • Sayer, L.C., S.M. Bianchi, J.P. Robinson (2004), “Are Parents Investing Less in Children? Trends in Mothers’ and Fathers’ Time with Children”, American Journal of Sociology, 110(1), 1-43.
  • Smith, J. P., M. Ward (1989), "Women in the Labor Market and in the Family", Journal of Economic Perspectives, 3, 9-23.
  • Soytas, M.A. (2011), “Essays on Life Cycle Dynastic Discrete Choice Models”, (Doktora Tezi), University of Pittsburgh.
  • Todd, E.P., K.D. Wolpin (2003), “On the Specification and Estimation of the Production Function for Cognitive Achievement”, The Economic Journal, 113, 1-218.
  • Wolpin, K. (1984), “An Estimable Dynamic Stochastic Model of Fertility and Child Mortality”, Journal of Political Economy, 92, 852-874.
  • Zabel, J. E. (1992), "Estimating fixed and random effects models with selectivity", Economics Letters, 40(3), 269-272.
Toplam 48 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Bölüm Hacettepe Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi
Yazarlar

Mehmet Ali Soytaş

Yayımlanma Tarihi 30 Haziran 2017
Gönderilme Tarihi 13 Mayıs 2016
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2017 Cilt: 35 Sayı: 2

Kaynak Göster

APA Soytaş, M. A. (2017). ÇOCUĞA YAPILAN ZAMAN YATIRIMLARININ İŞ GÜCÜ PİYASASINDAKİ KADIN-ERKEK ÜCRET FARKLILIĞINA ETKİLERİ. Hacettepe Üniversitesi İktisadi Ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 35(2), 121-151. https://doi.org/10.17065/huniibf.324814
AMA Soytaş MA. ÇOCUĞA YAPILAN ZAMAN YATIRIMLARININ İŞ GÜCÜ PİYASASINDAKİ KADIN-ERKEK ÜCRET FARKLILIĞINA ETKİLERİ. Hacettepe Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi. Haziran 2017;35(2):121-151. doi:10.17065/huniibf.324814
Chicago Soytaş, Mehmet Ali. “ÇOCUĞA YAPILAN ZAMAN YATIRIMLARININ İŞ GÜCÜ PİYASASINDAKİ KADIN-ERKEK ÜCRET FARKLILIĞINA ETKİLERİ”. Hacettepe Üniversitesi İktisadi Ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi 35, sy. 2 (Haziran 2017): 121-51. https://doi.org/10.17065/huniibf.324814.
EndNote Soytaş MA (01 Haziran 2017) ÇOCUĞA YAPILAN ZAMAN YATIRIMLARININ İŞ GÜCÜ PİYASASINDAKİ KADIN-ERKEK ÜCRET FARKLILIĞINA ETKİLERİ. Hacettepe Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi 35 2 121–151.
IEEE M. A. Soytaş, “ÇOCUĞA YAPILAN ZAMAN YATIRIMLARININ İŞ GÜCÜ PİYASASINDAKİ KADIN-ERKEK ÜCRET FARKLILIĞINA ETKİLERİ”, Hacettepe Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, c. 35, sy. 2, ss. 121–151, 2017, doi: 10.17065/huniibf.324814.
ISNAD Soytaş, Mehmet Ali. “ÇOCUĞA YAPILAN ZAMAN YATIRIMLARININ İŞ GÜCÜ PİYASASINDAKİ KADIN-ERKEK ÜCRET FARKLILIĞINA ETKİLERİ”. Hacettepe Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi 35/2 (Haziran 2017), 121-151. https://doi.org/10.17065/huniibf.324814.
JAMA Soytaş MA. ÇOCUĞA YAPILAN ZAMAN YATIRIMLARININ İŞ GÜCÜ PİYASASINDAKİ KADIN-ERKEK ÜCRET FARKLILIĞINA ETKİLERİ. Hacettepe Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi. 2017;35:121–151.
MLA Soytaş, Mehmet Ali. “ÇOCUĞA YAPILAN ZAMAN YATIRIMLARININ İŞ GÜCÜ PİYASASINDAKİ KADIN-ERKEK ÜCRET FARKLILIĞINA ETKİLERİ”. Hacettepe Üniversitesi İktisadi Ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, c. 35, sy. 2, 2017, ss. 121-5, doi:10.17065/huniibf.324814.
Vancouver Soytaş MA. ÇOCUĞA YAPILAN ZAMAN YATIRIMLARININ İŞ GÜCÜ PİYASASINDAKİ KADIN-ERKEK ÜCRET FARKLILIĞINA ETKİLERİ. Hacettepe Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi. 2017;35(2):121-5.

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