ABSTRACT

The search for new pharmaceutical dosage forms and different drug delivery systems already used in therapeutics is a global trend, serving as an opportunity to expand the portfolio for the pharmaceutical industry. In this context, multiparticulate systems, such as pellets, granules, and minitablets, represent an attractive alternative, given the range of possibilities they provide. Among the methods used in the production of these systems, we highlight the process of extrusion-spheronization for pellet manufacture, wet granulation and hot-melt extrusion for the obtention of granules, and direct compression for minitablets. Although highly versatile, depending on the technology chosen, many processes and formulation variables can influence the ensuing stages of manufacture, as well as the final product. Therefore, the characterization of these small units is of fundamental importance for achieving batch homogeneity and optimal product performance. Analyses, including particle size distribution, morphology, density, porosity, mechanical strength and disintegration, are example tests used in this characterization. The objective of this review was to address the most widely used tests for the physical evaluation of multiparticulate systems.

Keywords:
Multiparticulate systems/physical characterization; Pellets; Granules; Minitablets

INTRODUCTION

An innovation can be considered a positive contribution when it is beneficial to society. Examples include promoting the dissemination of knowledge created or offering differentiated products and services that have added value (Araújo et al., 2010Araújo EF, Barbosa CM, Queiroga ES, Alves SS. Propriedade intelectual: proteção e gestão estratégica do conhecimento. Rev Bras Zootecn. 2010;39(suppl Esp):1-10.; Johnstone, Pairaudeau, Pettersson, 2011Johnstone C, Pairaudeau G, Pettersson JA. Creativity, innovation and lean sigma: a controversial combination? Drug Discov Today. 2011;16(1/2):50-57.). In the pharmaceutical field, innovation can be exemplified by a technology that translates to direct benefit for patients, such as the introduction of new therapeutic arsenals providing alternatives to conventional treatments (Johnstone, Pairaudeau, Pettersson, 2011).

However, the entry of new chemical products onto the market is a slow and costly process, making the reformulation of already established drugs with well-known effects an attractive option for the pharmaceutical industry (Issa et al., 2012aIssa MG, Pessole L, Oliveira GGG, Ferraz HG. Revestimento de paracetamol para compressão direta em equipamento de leito fluidizado utilizando-se Kollicoat SR 30D(r) e Kollicoat Protect(r). Rev Bras Farm. 2012a;93(2):225-231.; Zerbini, Ferraz, 2011Zerbini APNA, Ferraz HG. Sistemas multiparticulados: minicomprimidos. Rev Bras Cien Farm Bas Apl. 2011;32(2):149-158.). Incorporation of drugs into new pharmaceutical dosage forms and different delivery systems have led to performance improvements in medications, resolving problems such as low absorption and lack of adherence to treatment, as well as providing business opportunities within existing portfolios that can be extended (Kulkarni et al., 2010Kulkarni PA, Kulkarni AD, Gandhi JA, Shirolkar SV, Kasture PV. Pelletization techniques as a pharmaceutical tool in the multiparticulate drug delivery system: a review. Int J Drug Formul Res. 2010;1(1):89-118.; Sandner, Ziegelbauer, 2008Sandner P, Ziegelbauer K. Product-related research: how research can contribute to successful life-cycle management. Drug Discov Today. 2008;13(9/10):457-465.).

Controlled-release, colonic release, pulsatile, oral disintegration and gastro-retentive systems are examples of alternatives that have been widely exploited. Among the pharmaceutical dosage forms, multiparticulates standout for the multitude of options they provide where, besides the above-mentioned systems, they can also be used in the production of immediate-release drugs and gastro-resistant systems (Cram, Bartlett, Heimlich, 2013Cram A, Bartlett JA, Heimlich J. Oral multiparticulate as a flexible solid dosage form approach for paediatric use. Biopharma Asia. 2013;Jun:1-14.; Dey, Majumdar, Rao, 2008Dey NS, Majumdar S, Rao MEB. Multiparticulate drug delivery systems for controlled release. Trop J Pharm Res. 2008;7(3):1067-1075.; Greb, 2010Greb E. The hour of the particle. Pharm Technol. 2010;Jul.:38-42.; Zerbini, Ferraz, 2011Zerbini APNA, Ferraz HG. Sistemas multiparticulados: minicomprimidos. Rev Bras Cien Farm Bas Apl. 2011;32(2):149-158.).

Multiparticulates, whose size ranges from 0.05 mm to 5 mm, are mainly used in the form of pellets, granules or minitablets that can be delivered in capsules or tablets (Dey, Majumdar, Rao, 2008Dey NS, Majumdar S, Rao MEB. Multiparticulate drug delivery systems for controlled release. Trop J Pharm Res. 2008;7(3):1067-1075.; Greb, 2010Greb E. The hour of the particle. Pharm Technol. 2010;Jul.:38-42.; Pezzini, Silva, Ferraz, 2007Pezzini BR, Silva MAS, Ferraz HG. Formas farmacêuticas sólidas orais de liberação prolongada: sistemas monolíticos e multiparticulados. Braz J Pharm Sci. 2007;43(4):491-502.; Zerbini, Ferraz, 2011Zerbini APNA, Ferraz HG. Sistemas multiparticulados: minicomprimidos. Rev Bras Cien Farm Bas Apl. 2011;32(2):149-158.). In these dosage forms, the drug dose is divided into smaller subunits, which, when administered disperse in the gastrointestinal tract. This provides numerous advantages over monolithic systems including only minor irritation of the mucosa, reduced variability in absorption and, in the case of controlled-release formulations, a lower risk of dose dumping (Cram, Bartlett, Heimlich, 2013Cram A, Bartlett JA, Heimlich J. Oral multiparticulate as a flexible solid dosage form approach for paediatric use. Biopharma Asia. 2013;Jun:1-14.; Dey, Majumdar, Rao, 2008; Santos et al., 2004Santos HMM, Veiga FJB, Pina MET, Sousa JJMS. Obtenção de pellets por extrusão e esferonização farmacêutica. Parte I. Avaliação das variáveis tecnológicas e de formulação. Braz J Pharm Sci. 2004;40(4):455-470.).

Additionally, technological advantages include the obtention of different doses using the same formulation and the possibility of incorporation of incompatible drugs into a single medication (Pezzini, Silva, Ferraz, 2007Pezzini BR, Silva MAS, Ferraz HG. Formas farmacêuticas sólidas orais de liberação prolongada: sistemas monolíticos e multiparticulados. Braz J Pharm Sci. 2007;43(4):491-502.; Zerbini, Ferraz, 2011Zerbini APNA, Ferraz HG. Sistemas multiparticulados: minicomprimidos. Rev Bras Cien Farm Bas Apl. 2011;32(2):149-158.). Given their small size, flexible doses and the possibility of obtaining oral disintegration systems, the use of particulates in formulations for pediatric and elderly patients has proven attractive (Cram, Bartlett, Heimlich, 2013Cram A, Bartlett JA, Heimlich J. Oral multiparticulate as a flexible solid dosage form approach for paediatric use. Biopharma Asia. 2013;Jun:1-14.; Dey, Majumdar, Rao, 2008Dey NS, Majumdar S, Rao MEB. Multiparticulate drug delivery systems for controlled release. Trop J Pharm Res. 2008;7(3):1067-1075.; Grycze et al., 2011Grycze A, Schminke S, Maniruzzaman M, Beck J, Douramis D. Development and evaluation of orally disintegrating tablets (ODTs) containing ibuprofen granules prepared by hot melt extrusion. Colloid Surface B. 2011;86(2):275-284.; Stoltenberg, Breitkreutz, 2011Stoltenberg I, Breitkreutz J. Orally disintegrating mini-tablets (ODMTs) - A novel solid oral dosage form for paediatric use. Eur J Pharm Biopharm. 2011;78(3):462-469.).

According to the type of system employed, different technologies may be used in the production of multiparticulates (Zerbini, Ferraz, 2011Zerbini APNA, Ferraz HG. Sistemas multiparticulados: minicomprimidos. Rev Bras Cien Farm Bas Apl. 2011;32(2):149-158.). In the case of pellets, extrusion-spheronization (Abdalla, Mader, 2007Abdalla A, Mäder K. Preparation and characterization of a self-emulsifying pellet formulation. Eur J Pharm Biopharm. 2007;66(2):220-226.; Beringhs et al., 2012Beringhs AO, Souza FM, Campos AM, Ferraz HG, Sonaglio D. Technological development of extract pellets by extrusion-spheronization. Rev Bras Farmacogn. 2012;23(1):160-168.; Kulkarni et al., 2010Kulkarni PA, Kulkarni AD, Gandhi JA, Shirolkar SV, Kasture PV. Pelletization techniques as a pharmaceutical tool in the multiparticulate drug delivery system: a review. Int J Drug Formul Res. 2010;1(1):89-118.) and coating inert core (Abdalla, Mader, 2007; Kulkarni et al., 2010) are the most commonly used processes. For the obtention of granules, wet granulation (Cai et al., 2013Cai L, Farber L, Zhang D, Li F, Farabaugh J. A new methodology for high drug loading wet granulation formulation. Int J Pharm. 2013;441(1-2):790-800.), melt granulation and hot-melt extrusion processes are used (Crowley et al., 2007Crowley MM, Zhang F, Repka MA, Thumma S, Upadhye SB, Battu SK, et al. Pharmaceutical applications of Hot-Melt Extrusion: Part I. Drug Dev Ind Pharm. 2007;33(9):909-926.; Gryczke et al., 2011; Mašic et al., 2012Mašić I, Ilić I, Dreu R, Ibrić S, Parojčić J, Đurić Z. An investigation into the effects of formulation variables and process parameters on characteristics of granules obtained by in situ fluidized hot melt granulation. Int J Pharm. 2012;423(2):202-212.). In the case of minitablets, the granulation methods mentioned above and direct compression are used, where this process is carried out using a conventional machine equipped with multiple punches (Lopes et al., 2006Lopes CM, Lobo JMS, Pinto JF, Costa P. Directly compressed mini matrix tablets containing ibuprofen. Preparation and evaluation sustained release. Drug Dev Ind Pharm. 2006;32(1):95-106.; Zerbini, Ferraz, 2011).

Depending on the chosen technology, several variables (formulation, equipment, process) can influence the physical and physicochemical properties of the multiparticulates. These properties can impact coating, compression and the filling of gelatin capsules, as well as the behavior of the final product (Gómez-Carracedo et al., 2009Gómez-Carracedo A, Alvarez-Lorenzo C, Coca R, Martínez-Pacheco R, Concheiro A, Gómez-Amoza JL. Fractal analysis of SEM images and mercury intrusion porosimetry data for the microstructural characterization of microcrystalline cellulose-based pellets. Acta Materialia. 2009;57(1):295-303.; Mangwandi et al., 2012Mangwandi C, Adams MJ, Hounslow MJ, Salman AD. An investigation of the influence of process and formulation variables on mechanical properties of high shear granules using design of experiments. Int J Pharm. 2012;427(2):328-336.; Pund et al., 2010Pund S, Joshi A, Vasu K, Nivsarkar M, Shishoo C. Multivariate optimization of formulation and process variables influencing physico-mechanical characteristics of site-specific release isoniazid pellets. Int J Pharm. 2010;388(1-2):64-72.; Santos et al., 2002Santos H, Veiga F, Pina M, Podczeck F, Sousa J. Physical properties of chitosan pellets produced by extrusion-spheronization: influence of formulation variables. Int J Pharm. 2002;246(1-2):153-169.; Sonaglio et al., 2012Sonaglio D, Beringhs AD, Porfírio A, Bataille B. On the factors influencing the extrusion strain, particle size and dissolution behavior of multiparticulate systems obtained by extrusion/spheronization. Powder Technol. 2012;230:54-62.).

Thus, the characterization of these systems is crucial to gaining a better understanding of the mechanisms that govern the release of the drug for further absorption and of aspects related to production.

Therefore, the objective of the present review was to address the most widely used tests and parameters for physical characterization of multiparticulate systems as a source of information for those who need to characterize these types of formulations.

MULTIPARTICULATE DOSAGE FORMS AND DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS

By using a variety of processes, different multi­particulate delivery systems can be produced resulting in a wide range of applications. Among these, the viability of drug association is important (Patel, Dhake, 2011Patel PB, Dhake AS. Multiparticulate approach: an emerging trend in colon specific drug delivery for chronotherapy. J Appl Pharm Sci. 2011;1(5):59-63.).

Some example applications reported in the literature for pellets, granules and minitablets include:

Pellets

Granules

Minitablets

Regarding the technologies employed in the obtention of these delivery systems (Figure 1) for pellets, extrusion followed by spheronization are the most exploited. For granules, the hot melt extrusion process is the most recently studied approach, whereas for the production of minitablets, direct compression is a widely used option.

Although multiparticulates provide many opportunities, their manufacture can involve a host of unit operations and variables. Additionally, they are inherently higher-cost processes because of their reliance on advanced technology. For example, obtaining pellets requires equipment such as extruders, a spheronizer and fluidized bed, whereas hot-melt extrusion requires screw extruders or co-extruders (Dey, Majumdar, Rao, 2008Dey NS, Majumdar S, Rao MEB. Multiparticulate drug delivery systems for controlled release. Trop J Pharm Res. 2008;7(3):1067-1075.; Dierickx et al., 2012Dierickx L, Saerens L, Almeida A, De Beer, T, Remon JP, Vervaet C. Co-extrusion as manufacturing technique for fixed-dose combination mini-matrices. Eur J Pharm Biopharm. 2012;81(3):683-689.; Patel, Dhake, 2011Patel PB, Dhake AS. Multiparticulate approach: an emerging trend in colon specific drug delivery for chronotherapy. J Appl Pharm Sci. 2011;1(5):59-63.; Zerbini, Ferraz, 2011Zerbini APNA, Ferraz HG. Sistemas multiparticulados: minicomprimidos. Rev Bras Cien Farm Bas Apl. 2011;32(2):149-158.).

Nevertheless, assessment of the possibilities provided by these systems, such as the launch of new products and acceptance by patients, indicates that multiparticulate formulations are set to gain market space in the coming years (Greb, 2010Greb E. The hour of the particle. Pharm Technol. 2010;Jul.:38-42.).

ASSAYS FOR PHYSICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF MULTIPARTICULATE SYSTEMS

The goal of a system constituted by multiparticulate dosage forms is that their small functional units can release the drug in a reproducible way. Thus, the homogeneity of physical characteristics such as particle size, morphology, surface area, porosity and density, among others, is essential for the drug to perform as expected (Kulkarni et al., 2010Kulkarni PA, Kulkarni AD, Gandhi JA, Shirolkar SV, Kasture PV. Pelletization techniques as a pharmaceutical tool in the multiparticulate drug delivery system: a review. Int J Drug Formul Res. 2010;1(1):89-118.; Mehta, 1989Mehta AM. Formulation and characterization of pellets. In: Ghebre-Selasie I, Editor. Pharmaceutical Pelletization Technology. 1st ed. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.; 1989. p. 241-265.).

Besides the release effect, these properties may also exert an influence at some stages during processing, such as coating, compression and encapsulation (Almeida-Prieto, Blanco-Mendez; Otero-Espinar, 2007Almeida-Prieto S, Blanco-Méndez J, Otero-Espinar FJ. Microscopic image analysis techniques for the morphological characterization of pharmaceutical particles: Influence of the software, and the factor algorithms used in the shape factor estimation. Eur J Pharm Biopharm. 2007;67(3):766-776.; Santos et al., 2002Santos H, Veiga F, Pina M, Podczeck F, Sousa J. Physical properties of chitosan pellets produced by extrusion-spheronization: influence of formulation variables. Int J Pharm. 2002;246(1-2):153-169.; Sousa et al., 2002aSousa JJ, Sousa A, Podczeck F, Newton JM. Factors influencing the physical characteristics of pellets obtained by extrusion-spheronization. Int J Pharm. 2002a;232(1-2):91-106.).

Thus, together with tests evaluating a drug, suitable physical characterization of these small units must be performed at the product development stage, so that some properties are also considered in process control testing (Mehta, 1989Mehta AM. Formulation and characterization of pellets. In: Ghebre-Selasie I, Editor. Pharmaceutical Pelletization Technology. 1st ed. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.; 1989. p. 241-265.). The knowledge generated and monitoring during production contribute to the reliability and yield of the batch, ultimately saving resources.

Pellets and granules are conventional systems studied for some time, while minitablets, melt granulation and hot melt extrusion are relatively new. The most common assays and parameters reported in the literature for physical characterization of multiparticulates are listed below. Some characterization tests are applied to all multiparticulate dosage forms, whereas others are specific to the process and or release system.

However, assays are commonly adapted according to the experience of the researchers and the results used to compare formulations. Further studies evaluating analytical variables of assays for multiparticulate systems are necessary.

Particle size distribution

Sieving is the most commonly employed method for particle size determination of particulate materials. Various sieve stirrers are available on the market whose movement can be mechanically induced, electromagnetic by airstream or ultrasonic pulses at different orientations. The meshes used, amount of material, equipment, as well as the intensity and duration of stirring, are key variables to be considered in this type of assay (European Pharmacopeia, 2008; Mehta, 1989Mehta AM. Formulation and characterization of pellets. In: Ghebre-Selasie I, Editor. Pharmaceutical Pelletization Technology. 1st ed. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.; 1989. p. 241-265.; United States Pharmacopeia, 2015; Wan, 1994Wan LSC. Manufacture of core pellets by balling. In: Ghebre-Selassie I. Multiparticulate oral drug delivery. 1st ed. New York: Marcel Dekker Inc.; 1994. p. 1-15.).

Mass used, sieves and stirring time are the parameters most commonly cited in the literature. In some cases, data relating to the intensity, frequency and amplitude are also described (Table I). However, assay conditions must be selected based on the configuration of the equipment and the material to be submitted to analyses. American and European pharmacopeia suggest determining the test endpoint as when there is no significant weight change between the sieves.

Although a very informative and accessible method, complementation with other assays such as microscopy (optical and electronic) can aid the interpretation of inconclusive results, since sieving is unable to detect variation in the particle shape (Mehta, 1989Mehta AM. Formulation and characterization of pellets. In: Ghebre-Selasie I, Editor. Pharmaceutical Pelletization Technology. 1st ed. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.; 1989. p. 241-265.).

Apart from these techniques, particle size analyses by laser diffraction equipment is also cited in the literature for more accurate determination of average pellet diameter (Bialleck, Rein, 2011Bialleck S, Rein H. Preparation of starch-based pellets by hot-melt extrusion. Eur J Pharm Biopharm. 2011;79(2):440-448.; Pund et al., 2010Pund S, Joshi A, Vasu K, Nivsarkar M, Shishoo C. Multivariate optimization of formulation and process variables influencing physico-mechanical characteristics of site-specific release isoniazid pellets. Int J Pharm. 2010;388(1-2):64-72.) and granules (Cai et al., 2013Cai L, Farber L, Zhang D, Li F, Farabaugh J. A new methodology for high drug loading wet granulation formulation. Int J Pharm. 2013;441(1-2):790-800.; Tissen et al., 2011Tissen C, Woertz K, Breitkreutz J, Kleinebudde P. Development of minitablets with 1 mm and 2 mm diameter. Int J Pharm. 2011;416(1):164-170.).

As shown in Table I, the dry method is the most used technique for evaluating multiparticulate systems by laser diffraction (Ibrahim, El-Badry, 2014Ibrahim MA, El-Badry M. Formulation of immediate release pellets containing famotidine solid dispersions. Saudi Pharm J. 2014;22(2):149-156.; Lin et al., 2011Lin X, Chyi CW, Ruan KF, Feng Y, Heng PWS. Development of potential novel cushioning agents for the compaction of coated multi-particulates by co-processing micronized lactose with polymers. Eur J Pharm Biopharm. 2011;79(2):406-415.; Yeung, Rein, 2015Yeung CW, Rein H. Hot-melt extrusion of sugar-starch-pellets. Int J Pharm. 2015;493(1-2):390-403.). Using compressed air as the dispersing agent can be a better alternative than the wet method since liquid can partially dissolve the formulation, reducing the original size of the material.

Morphology

The quantity, type of drug and processing conditions, as well as the excipients used in the formulation, are factors that contribute to defining the morphology of multiparticulate materials. The shape of the linked units can significantly influence the physical and chemical properties of the dosage form (Almeida-Prieto, Blanco-Mendez, Otero-Espinar, 2007Almeida-Prieto S, Blanco-Méndez J, Otero-Espinar FJ. Microscopic image analysis techniques for the morphological characterization of pharmaceutical particles: Influence of the software, and the factor algorithms used in the shape factor estimation. Eur J Pharm Biopharm. 2007;67(3):766-776.; Crowley et al., 2007Crowley MM, Zhang F, Repka MA, Thumma S, Upadhye SB, Battu SK, et al. Pharmaceutical applications of Hot-Melt Extrusion: Part I. Drug Dev Ind Pharm. 2007;33(9):909-926.; Gomez-Carracedo et al., 2009Gómez-Carracedo A, Alvarez-Lorenzo C, Coca R, Martínez-Pacheco R, Concheiro A, Gómez-Amoza JL. Fractal analysis of SEM images and mercury intrusion porosimetry data for the microstructural characterization of microcrystalline cellulose-based pellets. Acta Materialia. 2009;57(1):295-303.).

The particle size distribution based on sieving in combination with microscopic analyses techniques were originally used for morphological evaluation. Currently, analyses are based on geometric parameters calculated from the optical microscopic images derived (Almeida-Prieto, Blanco-Mendez, Otero-Espinar, 2007Almeida-Prieto S, Blanco-Méndez J, Otero-Espinar FJ. Microscopic image analysis techniques for the morphological characterization of pharmaceutical particles: Influence of the software, and the factor algorithms used in the shape factor estimation. Eur J Pharm Biopharm. 2007;67(3):766-776.; Mehta, 1989Mehta AM. Formulation and characterization of pellets. In: Ghebre-Selasie I, Editor. Pharmaceutical Pelletization Technology. 1st ed. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.; 1989. p. 241-265.), including Feret diameters, circularity and aspect ratio (Figure 2). However, the result is highly dependent on the image analyses software used, as the same parameter can be calculated by different equations generating disparate results, thereby hindering the comparison of data obtained by different laboratories (Almeida-Prieto, Blanco-Mendez,Otero-Espinar, 2007).

Another issue relates to a lack of standardization in terminology employed, where in some cases, different names can be assigned for the same parameter. For example, circularity that can also be denominated shape factor, sphericity index and surface factor, etc. (Almeida-Prieto, Blanco-Mendez, Otero-Espinar, 2007Almeida-Prieto S, Blanco-Méndez J, Otero-Espinar FJ. Microscopic image analysis techniques for the morphological characterization of pharmaceutical particles: Influence of the software, and the factor algorithms used in the shape factor estimation. Eur J Pharm Biopharm. 2007;67(3):766-776.; Mehta, 1989Mehta AM. Formulation and characterization of pellets. In: Ghebre-Selasie I, Editor. Pharmaceutical Pelletization Technology. 1st ed. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.; 1989. p. 241-265.).

Table II shows examples in the literature of shape parameters calculated of multiparticulate systems.

In general, besides optical microscopy, screening electron microscopy (SEM) is also performed, where images from the former are used to calculate the shape parameters, while the latter is most commonly used for surface display of external and internal particles. Pellet and granule sizes can also be determined, however, this task is somewhat laborious, given the need for individual evaluation of various particles to extrapolate particle size distribution throughout the batch. It is possible, however, to evaluate the presence of agglomerates not detected in sieve analysis (Mehta, 1989Mehta AM. Formulation and characterization of pellets. In: Ghebre-Selasie I, Editor. Pharmaceutical Pelletization Technology. 1st ed. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.; 1989. p. 241-265.).

For the analysis of SEM, samples should be prepared to facilitate the capture of signals and image building. Thus, samples are placed in an aluminum support containing a carbon tape and conductivity of the material is increased by depositing a thin layer of metallic ions such as gold, gold-palladium or platinum in an inert atmosphere of argon. Carbon deposition may also be used. The accelerating voltage, angle of inclination and working distance are example parameters that must be adjusted when carrying out this type of assay (Mehta, 1989Mehta AM. Formulation and characterization of pellets. In: Ghebre-Selasie I, Editor. Pharmaceutical Pelletization Technology. 1st ed. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.; 1989. p. 241-265.). Descriptions found in the literature for conducting these analyses are given in Table III.

Specific surface area

Particle size, shape, porosity and roughness of particulate materials are factors influenced by the conditions employed in the core production step (pellets, granules and minitablets) and, according to the variation, can result in different surface areas (Mehta, 1989Mehta AM. Formulation and characterization of pellets. In: Ghebre-Selasie I, Editor. Pharmaceutical Pelletization Technology. 1st ed. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.; 1989. p. 241-265.; Lowell et al., 2004Lowell S, Shields JE, Thomas MA, Thommes M. Characterization of porous solids and powders: surface area, pore size and density. 1st ed. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publisher; 2004. 347p.). A high surface area usually requires additional amounts of coating and establishes better contact of the dosage form with gastrointestinal fluids, thus promoting the dissolution process (Lehmann, 1994Lehmann K. Coating of multiparticulates using polymeric solutions - formulation and process considerations. In: Ghebre-Selassie I, Editor. Multiparticulate Oral Drug Delivery. 1st ed. New York: Marcel Dekker Inc.; 1994. p. 51-78.; Mehta, 1989).

Among the techniques available for determination of specific surface area, gas adsorption is widely employed, and the surface analysis methodology and porosity of solid materials by the BET equation are commonly used approaches (Lowell et al., 2004Lowell S, Shields JE, Thomas MA, Thommes M. Characterization of porous solids and powders: surface area, pore size and density. 1st ed. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publisher; 2004. 347p.).

As this calculation takes into consideration the volume of gas adsorbed in the sample, different materials may be used as adsorbates. Nitrogen is the most commonly used adsorbate due to the properties of the molecules, which enable interaction with the surface of many materials, and because the gas is readily available in liquid state (Lowell et al., 2004Lowell S, Shields JE, Thomas MA, Thommes M. Characterization of porous solids and powders: surface area, pore size and density. 1st ed. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publisher; 2004. 347p.). In relation to the parameters used in this technique, these often include, in addition to type of gas, the sample preparation time, corresponding to the removal of air from the surface of the material under vacuum and at the appropriate temperature, freezing and the number of points collected (multipoint or single point) to obtain the adsorption-desorption isotherms.

As depicted in Table IV, the analysis is usually performed on a surface analyzer device using nitrogen gas due to its availability and low cost. The use of krypton was cited in some cases, probably due to its intrinsic characteristic of capturing small surface areas (Dong et al., 2008Dong Z, Chatterji A, Sandhu H, Choi DS, Chokshi H, Shah N. Evaluation of solid state properties of solid dispersions prepared by hot-melt extrusion and solvent co-precipitation. Int J Pharm. 2008;355(1-2):141-149.; Schrank et al., 2015Schrank S, Kann B, Saurugger E, Hainschitz M, Windbergs M, Glasser BJ, et al. The effect of the drying temperature on the properties of wet-extruded calcium stearate pellets: pellet microstructure, drug distribution, solid state and drug dissolution. Int J Pharm. 2015;478(2):779-787.; Sousa et al., 2002bSousa JJ, Sousa A, Moura MJ, Podczeck F, Newton JM. The influence of core materials and film coating on the drug release from coated pellets. Int J Pharm. 2002b;233(1-2):111-122.).

Grassi et al. (2003Grassi M, Voinovich D, Moneguini M, Franceschinis E, Perissutti B, Filipovic-Grcic J. Preparation and evaluation of a melt pelletised paracetamol/ stearic acid sustained release delivery system. J Control Release. 2003;88(3):381-391.) described surface area analysis performed using a mercury porosimeter, although this technique has the limitation of measuring closed pores (Giesche, 2006Giesche H. Mercury porosimetry: a general (practical) overview. Part Part Syst Charact. 2006;23:1-11.).

Density and flow behavior

The knowledge of the density of a batch of multiparticulates is of great importance in the final stages of processing, such as in the mixture of different pellet formulations or granules, the coating step on a fluidized bed, and in capsule filling or tableting (Mehta, 1989Mehta AM. Formulation and characterization of pellets. In: Ghebre-Selasie I, Editor. Pharmaceutical Pelletization Technology. 1st ed. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.; 1989. p. 241-265.; Santos et al., 2006Santos HMM, Veiga FJB, De Pina EMST, Sousa JJMS. Obtenção de pellets por extrusão e esferonização farmacêutica. Parte II. Avaliação das características físicas de pellets. Braz J Pharm Sci. 2006;42(3):309-318.).

Although the density calculation is fairly simple, obtained by dividing the mass of the material by the volume it occupies, there are several approaches for this parameter (Table V), all of which convey different information that can be used in any step of production or even in elucidating the release profile of the formulation (He, 2009He X. Integration of physical, chemical, mechanical and biopharmaceutical properties in solid oral dosage form development. In: Yihong Q, Chen Y, Zhang GZZ, Liu L, Porter W, editors. Developing solid oral dosage forms: pharmaceutical theory and practice. 1st ed. Burlington: Elsevier; 2009. p. 409-441.; Santos et al., 2006Santos HMM, Veiga FJB, De Pina EMST, Sousa JJMS. Obtenção de pellets por extrusão e esferonização farmacêutica. Parte II. Avaliação das características físicas de pellets. Braz J Pharm Sci. 2006;42(3):309-318.).

True density is a characteristic of the material derived from its manufacturing process and related to particle size. In this case, the volume adopted for calculation takes into account only the solid material, discounting the volume occupied by internal or external pores and spaces between particles (He, 2009He X. Integration of physical, chemical, mechanical and biopharmaceutical properties in solid oral dosage form development. In: Yihong Q, Chen Y, Zhang GZZ, Liu L, Porter W, editors. Developing solid oral dosage forms: pharmaceutical theory and practice. 1st ed. Burlington: Elsevier; 2009. p. 409-441.; Lowell et al., 2004Lowell S, Shields JE, Thomas MA, Thommes M. Characterization of porous solids and powders: surface area, pore size and density. 1st ed. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publisher; 2004. 347p.; Santos et al., 2006Santos HMM, Veiga FJB, De Pina EMST, Sousa JJMS. Obtenção de pellets por extrusão e esferonização farmacêutica. Parte II. Avaliação das características físicas de pellets. Braz J Pharm Sci. 2006;42(3):309-318.).

Helium pycnometry is the preferred method for determining true density, given the small size of the gas molecule, which has greater ability to penetrate very small pores. If the porosity of the multiparticulate form is very low or it possesses pores which may be filled by mercury or another liquid in which the material does not disintegrate, mercury porosimetry or liquid displacement method may also be used (Lowell et al., 2004Lowell S, Shields JE, Thomas MA, Thommes M. Characterization of porous solids and powders: surface area, pore size and density. 1st ed. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publisher; 2004. 347p.).

For apparent density, sometimes called effective density, the volume is considered the volume occupied by the solid material plus internal pores, which are inaccessible. In most cases, mercury porosimetry is the method of choice for determining apparent density (Lowell et al., 2004Lowell S, Shields JE, Thomas MA, Thommes M. Characterization of porous solids and powders: surface area, pore size and density. 1st ed. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publisher; 2004. 347p.). With the true density and apparent density data, the percentage porosity of the multiparticulate form can be calculated (Ghanam, Hassan, Kleinebudde, 2010Ghanam D, Hassan I, Kleinebudde P. Compression behavior of k-carrageenan pellets. Int J Pharm. 2010;390(2):117-127.; Santos et al., 2005Santos H, Veiga F, Pina ME, Sousa JJ. Compaction, compression and drug release properties of diclofenac sodium and ibuprofen pellets comprising xanthan gum as a sustained release agent. Int J Pharm. 2005;295(1-2):15-27.), as outlined below.

Bulk and compacted density provide information on the space occupied by the formulation and may be used, for example, to define batch sizes and equipment used in production and selection of capsule size. Furthermore, these parameters can indicate the flow of material when the compressibility index and Hausner ratio are calculated (He, 2009He X. Integration of physical, chemical, mechanical and biopharmaceutical properties in solid oral dosage form development. In: Yihong Q, Chen Y, Zhang GZZ, Liu L, Porter W, editors. Developing solid oral dosage forms: pharmaceutical theory and practice. 1st ed. Burlington: Elsevier; 2009. p. 409-441.; Mehta, 1989Mehta AM. Formulation and characterization of pellets. In: Ghebre-Selasie I, Editor. Pharmaceutical Pelletization Technology. 1st ed. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.; 1989. p. 241-265.; United States Pharmacopeia, 2015).

As shown in Table VI, density is a frequently studied property in multiparticulate systems.

Angle of repose and flow rate are also extensively used to evaluate the rheology of multiparticulate formulations. Several methods are available although, in most cases, these properties are determined as described in U.S. Pharmacopeia, i.e. by using a hopper in which the material passes and forms a cone, whereby the inclination angle is calculated (United States Pharmacopeia, 2015).

The flow of a material is dependent on several factors, such as humidity and the degree of particle consolidation, and hence the result may vary according to the conditions used for analyses. Thus, different devices have emerged for determining flow more accurately, which are based on the use of shear forces on the quantity of sample and application time, as well as the interactions between the particles of the material and the cell used for analysis (Amidon, Secreast, Mudie, 2009Amidon GE, Secreast PJ, Mudie D. Particle, powder and compact characterization In: Yihong Q, Chen Y, Zhang GZZ, Liu L, Porter W, editors. Developing solid oral dosage forms: pharmaceutical theory and practice. 1st ed. Burlington: Elsevier; 2009. p. 163-186.).

Porosity

Porosity is a property that relates to the release of drug from the dosage form, directly influencing the steps of disintegration and dissolution. High material porosity can lead to low density particles improving the dissolution process (D’Arcy, Persoons, 2011D'Arcy DM, Persoons TJ. Mechanistic modelling and mechanistic monitoring: simulation and shadowgraph imaging of particulate dissolution in the flow-through apparatus. J Pharm Sci. 2011;100(3):1102-1115.). It is determined by processing conditions and formulation, especially in the case of pellets and granules, due to the volume of liquid used in kneading and removal in the drying step (Farber, Tardos, Michaels, 2003Farber L, Tardos G, Michaels JN. Use of X-ray tomography to study the porosity and morphology of granules. Powder Technol. 2003;132(1):57-63.; Mehta, 1989Mehta AM. Formulation and characterization of pellets. In: Ghebre-Selasie I, Editor. Pharmaceutical Pelletization Technology. 1st ed. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.; 1989. p. 241-265.; Pund et al., 2010Pund S, Joshi A, Vasu K, Nivsarkar M, Shishoo C. Multivariate optimization of formulation and process variables influencing physico-mechanical characteristics of site-specific release isoniazid pellets. Int J Pharm. 2010;388(1-2):64-72.).

The size and distribution of pores can facilitate the penetration of gastrointestinal fluid in multiparticulate systems but these are not the only parameters. Another important issue associated with the surface of these units is the composition of the formulation, which can affect their wettability (Riippi et al., 1998Riippi M, Yliruusi J, Niskanen T, Kiesvaara J. Dependence between dissolution rate and porosity of compressed erythromycin acistrate tablets. Eur J Pharm Biopharm. 1998;46(2):169-175.). Furthermore, the presence of pores on the surface of the cores may influence coating quality, and hence lead to variation in the performance of the product (Mehta, 1989Mehta AM. Formulation and characterization of pellets. In: Ghebre-Selasie I, Editor. Pharmaceutical Pelletization Technology. 1st ed. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.; 1989. p. 241-265.; Santos et al., 2006Santos HMM, Veiga FJB, De Pina EMST, Sousa JJMS. Obtenção de pellets por extrusão e esferonização farmacêutica. Parte II. Avaliação das características físicas de pellets. Braz J Pharm Sci. 2006;42(3):309-318.).

Techniques for determining the porosity of multiparticulate systems reported in the literature include porosimetry by mercury intrusion, determination of density by helium pycnometer or deposition of solid material, gas adsorption, scanning electron microscopy and X-ray computed tomography (XCT) (Table VII). The most used of these techniques are mercury porosimetry and helium pycnometer. Mercury porosimetry , can provide results such as pore size and its distribution volume and percentage porosity of the material, as illustrated using the densities in Equation 3 (Ghanam, Hassan, Kleinebudde, 2010Ghanam D, Hassan I, Kleinebudde P. Compression behavior of k-carrageenan pellets. Int J Pharm. 2010;390(2):117-127.; Mehta et al., 2012Mehta S, De Beer T, Remon JP, Vervaet C. Effect of disintegrants on the properties of multiparticulate tablets comprising starch pellets and excipient granules. Int J Pharm. 2012;422(1-2):310-317.; Santos et al., 2005Santos H, Veiga F, Pina ME, Sousa JJ. Compaction, compression and drug release properties of diclofenac sodium and ibuprofen pellets comprising xanthan gum as a sustained release agent. Int J Pharm. 2005;295(1-2):15-27.).

e = porosity, r_a = effective/apparent density, r_h = true density

Since porosimetry is dependent on the pressure applied and mercury contact angle with the surface of the sample, there is a limitation for the evaluation of materials having pores of very small size (below 1.5 nm). In these cases, nitrogen adsorption technique using the BET equation may provide better results (Lowell et al., 2004Lowell S, Shields JE, Thomas MA, Thommes M. Characterization of porous solids and powders: surface area, pore size and density. 1st ed. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publisher; 2004. 347p.; Santos et al., 2006Santos HMM, Veiga FJB, De Pina EMST, Sousa JJMS. Obtenção de pellets por extrusão e esferonização farmacêutica. Parte II. Avaliação das características físicas de pellets. Braz J Pharm Sci. 2006;42(3):309-318.).

SEM and XCT are options for viewing the pore distribution in the multiparticulates. SEM is intended for only qualitative determination while XCT also provides quantification of pore size and porosity (Farber, Tardos, Michaels, 2003Farber L, Tardos G, Michaels JN. Use of X-ray tomography to study the porosity and morphology of granules. Powder Technol. 2003;132(1):57-63.; Mehta, 1989Mehta AM. Formulation and characterization of pellets. In: Ghebre-Selasie I, Editor. Pharmaceutical Pelletization Technology. 1st ed. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.; 1989. p. 241-265.).

Mechanical strength

The various unit operations to which the multiparticulate forms are subjected require a certain mechanical strength of these small units, particularly when steps such as fluidized bed coating and compression are involved. Advantageous from an economic standpoint as a way of reducing production costs, incorporation into tablet is a strategy adopted. However, it is important that the drug release properties are maintained after compression, for example, the coating film integrity (Cespi et al., 2007Cespi M, Bonacucina G, Misici-Falzi M, Golzi R, Boltri L, Palmieri GF. Stress relaxation test for the characterization of the viscosity of pellets. Eur J Pharm Biopharm. 2007;67(2):476-484.; Santos et al., 2004Santos HMM, Veiga FJB, Pina MET, Sousa JJMS. Obtenção de pellets por extrusão e esferonização farmacêutica. Parte I. Avaliação das variáveis tecnológicas e de formulação. Braz J Pharm Sci. 2004;40(4):455-470.; Santos et al., 2006).

As can be seen in Table VIII, mechanical strength is constantly evaluated in multiparticulate forms. In the case of minitablets, the most common tests already used in tablets, such as hardness and friability, are employed (Lopes et al., 2006Lopes CM, Lobo JMS, Pinto JF, Costa P. Directly compressed mini matrix tablets containing ibuprofen. Preparation and evaluation sustained release. Drug Dev Ind Pharm. 2006;32(1):95-106.; Tomuta, Leucuta, 2007Tomuta I, Leucuta SE. The influence of formulation factors on the kinetic release of metoprolol tartrate from prolong release coated minitablets. Drug Dev Ind Pharm. 2007;33(10):1070-1077.; Weyenberg et al., 2006Weyenberg W, Bozdag S, Foreman P, Remon JP, Ludwig A. Characterization and in vivo evaluation of ocular minitablets prepared with different bioadhesive Carbopol-starch components. Eur J Pharm Biopharm. 2006;62(2):202-209.). For granules and pellets, tensile strength (Equation 4) and Young’s elastic modulus, related to the stiffness and crushing strength (hardness) of the material, are the most frequently determined. For this purpose, a strain chart can be obtained by using a texture analyzer device, in which the material is exposed to a given load against time (Santos et al., 2006Santos HMM, Veiga FJB, De Pina EMST, Sousa JJMS. Obtenção de pellets por extrusão e esferonização farmacêutica. Parte II. Avaliação das características físicas de pellets. Braz J Pharm Sci. 2006;42(3):309-318.; Šibanc et al., 2013Šibanc R, Kitak T, Govedarica B, Srčič S, Dreu R. Physical properties of pharmaceutical pellets. Chem Eng Sci. 2013;86:50-60.; Yeung, Rein, 2015Yeung CW, Rein H. Hot-melt extrusion of sugar-starch-pellets. Int J Pharm. 2015;493(1-2):390-403.).

d = tensile strength; F = intensity of the force required to break; r ² = radius of the particle obtained by Feret´s diameter

For friability, different adjustments are performed (Table IX), typically using glass or steel balls, in order to increase the material´s abrasion and improve the sensitivity of the method (Chopra, Venkatesan, Betageri, 2013Chopra S, Venkatesan N, Betageri GV. Formulation of lipid bearing pellets as a delivery system for poorly soluble drugs. Int J Pharm. 2013;446(1-2):136-144.; Issa et al., 2012b; Santos et al., 2006Santos HMM, Veiga FJB, De Pina EMST, Sousa JJMS. Obtenção de pellets por extrusão e esferonização farmacêutica. Parte II. Avaliação das características físicas de pellets. Braz J Pharm Sci. 2006;42(3):309-318.). A friabilometer is the equipment used in most cases, where sometimes a stirring system is used instead (Chevalier et al., 2010Chevalier E, Viana M, Cazalbou S, Makein L, Dubois J, Chulia D. Ibuprofen-loaded calcium phosphate granules: Combination of innovative characterization methods to relate mechanical strength to drug location. Acta Biomaterialia. 2010;6(1):266-274.; Stoltenberg, Breitkreutz, 2011Stoltenberg I, Breitkreutz J. Orally disintegrating mini-tablets (ODMTs) - A novel solid oral dosage form for paediatric use. Eur J Pharm Biopharm. 2011;78(3):462-469.). Alternatively, the approach used by Li et al. (2014Li Z, Xu H, Li S, Li Q, Zhang W, Ye T, et al. A novel gastro-floating multiparticulate system for dipyridamole (DIP) based on a porous and low-density matrix core: In vitro and in vivo evaluation. Int J Pharm. 2014;461(1-2):540-548.) can be adopted, in which the material is subjected to drastic conditions in the coating equipment.

The result is obtained by determination of the percentage mass of the material lost when exposed to abrasion, requiring the use of a sieve to separate the fraction formed as powder which is weighed during the assay. The study of Issa et al. (2012b) reported an alternative in which the mass loss is measured by comparing the amounts retained in the sieves, where the particle size distribution is carried out before and after the assay.

Disintegration

Given the tendency of the incorporation of multiparticulate systems in the form of tablets, for example, in the case of a multiple unit pellet system (MUPS), disintegration should occur quickly so that each unit can operate independently. Thus, this step in the release process becomes a key feature and can improve the selection of excipients to be used in the formulation, as well as the conditions employed in compression (Abbaspour, Sadegni, Garekani, 2008Abbaspour MR, Sadeghi F, Garekani HA. Design and study of ibuprofen disintegrating sustained-release tablets comprising coated pellets. Eur J Pharm Biopharm. 2008;68(3):747-759.; Ghanam, Kleinebudde, 2011Ghanam D, Kleinebudde P. Suitability of k-carrageenan pellets for the formulation of multiparticulate tablets with modified release. Int J Pharm. 2011;409(1-2):9-18.; Mehta et al., 2012Mehta S, De Beer T, Remon JP, Vervaet C. Effect of disintegrants on the properties of multiparticulate tablets comprising starch pellets and excipient granules. Int J Pharm. 2012;422(1-2):310-317.).

For immediate release multiparticulate systems, the disintegration process of each subunit is vital because this step occurs prior to the dissolution process. The occurrence of disintegration problems can affect drug release and consequently drug absorption (Mahato, 2007Mahato, RI. Pharmaceutical dosage forms and drug delivery. 1st ed. Boca Raton: Taylor & Francis Group; 2007. 300p.).

When in tablet form, the assay method is the conventional one, evaluating six units using the apparatus described in the pharmacopoeias (Abbaspour, Sadeghi, Garekani, 2008Abbaspour MR, Sadeghi F, Garekani HA. Design and study of ibuprofen disintegrating sustained-release tablets comprising coated pellets. Eur J Pharm Biopharm. 2008;68(3):747-759.; Chopra, Venkatesan, Betageri, 2013Chopra S, Venkatesan N, Betageri GV. Formulation of lipid bearing pellets as a delivery system for poorly soluble drugs. Int J Pharm. 2013;446(1-2):136-144.; Mehta et al., 2012Mehta S, De Beer T, Remon JP, Vervaet C. Effect of disintegrants on the properties of multiparticulate tablets comprising starch pellets and excipient granules. Int J Pharm. 2012;422(1-2):310-317.). However, assays with small units are also described in the literature and, therefore, adjustments can be made either by using narrower mesh to ensure that the material is stirred and/or by employing down-sized sample holders (Abdalla, Mader, 2007Abdalla A, Mäder K. Preparation and characterization of a self-emulsifying pellet formulation. Eur J Pharm Biopharm. 2007;66(2):220-226.; Ghanam, Kleinebudde, 2011Ghanam D, Kleinebudde P. Suitability of k-carrageenan pellets for the formulation of multiparticulate tablets with modified release. Int J Pharm. 2011;409(1-2):9-18.), as well as other devices, such as the roller bottle equipment used by Ghosh and Chakraborty (2013Ghosh A, Chakraborty P. Formulation and mathematical optimization of controlled release calcium alginate micro pellets of frusemide. BioMed Res Int. 2013;Article ID 819674:1-14.).

CONCLUSION

The fact that pharmaceutical dosage forms can be delivered in small functional unities, makes multiparticulates an attractive option for the development of new formulations. On the other hand, given the small size of these units, physical characterization tests become fundamental to understand the process variables and to assist the formulator in the selection of excipients and parameters used in the various unit operations involved in production. Tests are now well known. However, as multiparticulates are relatively new compared to traditional tablets, some adjustments are needed to improve the sensitivity of the techniques used. Adequate physical characterization is achieved by combining different assays. The most used tests are granulometric distribution by the sieving method, morphology by determining shape parameters based on microscopy images derived, surface area analysis by the gas adsorption technique, density and porosity by combining pycnometry and porosimetry techniques, as well as mechanical strength, especially for obtaining breakdown tension, hardness, friability and disintegration.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to thank the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES/Brazil).

REFERENCES

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