Abstract
The work hardening behavior of electrodeposited nanocrystalline nickel (29 and 19 nm) was investigated under multiaxial loading and compared with coarse-grained nickel. Plastic strain gradients were introduced into the materials using large Rockwell D hardness indentations, and measured through cross-sectional hardness profiles. The results showed that the coarse-grained material exhibited substantial hardening up to twice the hardness of the deformation-free area due to dislocation mediated deformation, while the nanocrystalline materials displayed small hardness variations along the strain gradient, indicative of considerably reduced dislocation interactions. Moreover, the grain structure analysis (cumulative volume fraction and size distribution) for the nanocrystalline materials suggested the operation of both dislocation mediated and grain boundary controlled deformation mechanisms, the latter becoming more significant with increasing cumulative sample volume of very small grains. The plastic deformation zone sizes under Rockwell indentation of the 29 nm Ni are similar to those conventional materials with reduced strain hardening. Microhardness-indentation size effects were negligible in both the nanocrystalline and coarse-grained materials.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
W.H. Safranek: The Properties of Electrodeposited Metals and Alloys (American Elsevier Pub. Co., New York, 1974).
G.D. Hughes, S.D. Smith, C.S. Pande, H.R. Johnson, and R.W. Armstrong: Hall-petch strengthening for the microhardness of twelve nanometer grain diameter electrodeposited nickel. Scr. Metall. 20, 93 (1986).
A.M. El-Sherik, U. Erb, G. Palumbo, and K.T. Aust: Deviations from Hall–Petch behaviour in as-prepared nanocrystalline nickel. Scr. Metall. Mater. 27, 1185 (1992).
N. Wang, Z. Wang, K.T. Aust, and U. Erb: Room temperature creep behaviour of nanocrystalline nickel produced by an electrodeposition technique. Mater. Sci. Eng., A 237, 150 (1997).
U. Erb, K.T. Aust, and G. Palumbo: Electrodeposited Nanocrystalline Metals, Alloys and Composites. In Nanostructured Materials, 2nd ed., C.C. Koch ed.; William Andrew Publications: Norwich, New York, 2007; pp. 235–292.
K.S. Kumar, H. Van Swygenhoven, and S. Suresh: Mechanical behavior of nanocrystalline metals and alloys. Acta Mater. 51, 5743 (2003).
C.C. Koch: Structural nanocrystalline materials: An overview. J. Mater. Sci. 42, 1403 (2007).
F. Ebrahimi, Q. Zhai, and D. Kong: Deformation and fracture of electrodeposited copper. Scr. Mater. 39, 315 (1998).
F. Dalla Torre, H. Van Swygenhoven, and M. Victoria: Nanocrystalline electrodeposited Ni: Microstructure and tensile properties. Acta Mater. 50, 3957 (2002).
E. Ma: Instabilities and ductility of nanocrystalline and ultrafine-grained metals. Scr. Mater. 49, 663 (2003).
C.C. Koch: Ductility in nanostructured and ultra fine-grained materials: Recent evidence for optimism. J. Metastable Nanocryst. Mater. 18, 9 (2003).
A. Kulovits, S.X. Wao, and J.M.K. Wiezovek: Microstructural evolution in nanocrystalline Ni during cold-rolling. Acta Mater. 56, 4836 (2008).
X.L. Wu, Y.T. Zhu, Y.G. Wei, and Q. Wei: Strong strain hardening in nanocrystalline nickel. Phys. Rev. Lett. 103, 20550 (2009).
M.A. Meyers, A. Mishra, and D.J. Benson: Mechanical properties of nanocrystalline materials. Prog. Mater. Sci. 51, 427 (2006).
J. Schiotz, F.D. Di Tolla, and K.W. Jacobson: Softening of nanocrystalline metals at very small grain sizes. Nature 391, 561 (1998).
H. Van Swygenhoven: Grain boundaries, and dislocations. Science 296, 66 (2002).
ASTM E18-08b: Specification for Test Method for Rockwell Hardness of Metallic Materials (ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2011).
L.E. Samuels: Mechanical grinding, abrasion and polishing. In Metals Handbook, Metallography and Microstructures, 9th ed., Vol. 9, ASM Metals Park:OH, USA, 1985; pp. 33–47.
ASTM E384-10e2: Specification for Test Method for Knoop and Vickers Hardness of Materials (ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2004); pp. 86–109.
J.D. Giallonardo, U. Erb, K.T. Aust, and G. Palumbo: The influence of grain size on the Young’s modulus of electrodeposited nanocrystalline nickel and nickel-iron alloys. Philos. Mag. 91, 4594 (2011).
B.T.F. Tang, U. Erb, and I. Brooks: Strain hardening in polycrystalline and nanocrystalline nickel. Adv. Mater. Res. 409, 550 (2012).
H. Conrad, S. Feuerstein, and L. Rice: Effects of grain size on the dislocation density and flow stress of niobium. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2, 157 (1967).
X.D. Hou, A.J. Bushby, and N.M. Jennett: Study of the interaction between the indentation size effect and Hall–Petch effect with spherical indenters on annealed polycrystalline copper. J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 41, 074006 (2008).
D.J. Dunstan, B. Ehrler, R. Bossis, S. Joly, K.M.Y. P’ng, and A.J. Bushby: Elastic limit and strain hardening of thin wires in torsion. Phys. Rev. Lett. 103, 15501 (2009).
A.J. Bushby, T.T. Zhu, and D.J. Dunstan: Slip distance model for the indentation size effect at the initiation of plasticity in ceramics and metals. J. Mater. Res. 24, 966 (2009).
X. Hou and N.M. Jennett: Application of a modified slip-distance theory to the indentation of single-crystal and polycrystalline copper to model the interactions between indentation size and structure size effects. Acta Mater. 60, 4128 (2012).
X. Hou, N.M. Jennett, and M. Parlinska-Wojtan: Exploiting interactions between structure size and indentation size effects to determine the characteristic dimension of nano-structured materials by indentation. J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 46, 265301 (2013).
W.F. Gale and T.L. Totemeier eds.: Smithhells Metals Reference Book, 8th ed. (Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, Burlington, MA, USA, 2004); pp. 22–67.
D. Tabor: A Simple theory of static and dynamic hardness. Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A 192, 247 (1948).
G. Williams and H. O’Neill: Straining of metals by indentation including work-softening effects. J. Iron Steel Inst. 182, 266 (1956).
A. Atkins and D. Tabor: Plastic indentation in metals with cones. J. Mech. Phys. Solids 13, 149–164 (1965).
M. Chaudhri: Subsurface plastic strain distribution around spherical indentations in metals. Philos. Mag. A74, 1213 (1996).
G. Revankar: ASM Handbook, Mechanical Testing and Evaluation, Vol. 8 (Materials Park, Ohio, USA, 2000); p. 195.
R. Hill, B. Storakers, and A.B. Zdunek: A theoretical study of the Brinell hardness test. Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A 423, 301 (1989).
M. Mata, M. Anglada, and J. Alcala: Contact deformation regimes around sharp indentations and the concept of the characteristic strain. J. Mater. Res. 17, 964 (2002).
M. Mata, O. Casals, and J. Alcala: The plastic zone size in indentation experiments: The analogy with the expansion of a spherical cavity. Int. J. Solids Struct. 43, 5994 (2006).
L.E. Samuels and T.O. Mulhearn: An experimental investigation of the deformed zone associated with indentation hardness impressions. J. Mech. Phys. Solids 5, 125 (1957).
D.S. Dugdale: Cone indentation experiments. J. Mech. Phys. Solids 2, 265 (1954).
M. Chaudhri: Subsurface deformation patterns around indentations in work-hardened mild steel. Philos. Mag. Lett. 67, 107 (1993).
Y.T. Cheng and Z. Li: Hardness obtained from conical indentations with various cone angles. J. Mater. Res. 15, 2830 (2000).
A.W. Thompson: Effect of grain size on work hardening in nickel. Acta Metall. 25, 83 (1977).
C.W. Sinclair, W.J. Poole, and Y. Brechet: A model for the grain size dependent work hardening of copper. Scr. Mater. 55, 739 (2006).
E.V. Kozlov, N.A. Koneva, L.I. Trishkina, A.N. Zhdanov, and M.V. Fedorischeva: Features of work hardening of polycrystals with nanograins. Mater. Sci. Forum 584, 35 (2008).
A. Franek, J. Kratochvil, M. Saxlova, and R. Sedlacek: Synergetic approach to work hardening of metals. Mater. Sci. Eng., A 137, 119 (1991).
G.I. Taylor: The mechanism of plastic deformation of crystals. Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A 145, 362 (1934).
D. Kuhlmann-Wilsdorf: A new theory of workhardening. Trans. Metall. Soc. AIME 224, 1047 (1962).
R.W. Hertzberg: Deformation, and Fracture Mechanics Of Engineering Materials, 3rd ed., (John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1989).
J.P. Hirth and J. Lothe: Theory of Dislocations, 2nd ed. (Wiley, New York, 1982).
M. Legros, B.R. Elliott, M.N. Rittner, J.R. Weertman, and K.J. Hemker: Microsample tensile testing of nanocrystalline metals. Philos. Mag. A 80, 1017 (2000).
H. Hahn, P. Mondal, and K.A. Padmanabhan: Plastic deformation of nanocrystalline materials. Nanostruct. Mater. 9, 603 (1997).
H. Van Swygenhoven, M. Spaczer, and A. Caro: Microscopic description of plasticity in computer generated metallic nanophase samples: A comparison between Cu and Ni. Acta Mater. 47, 3117 (1999).
H. Conrad: Grain size dependence of the plastic deformation kinetics in Cu. Mater. Sci. Eng., A 341, 216 (2003).
H. Van Swygenhoven, M. Spaczer, D. Farkas, and A. Caro: The role of grain size and the presence of low and high angle grain boundaries in the deformation mechanism of nanophase Ni: A molecular dynamics computer simulation. Nanostruct. Mater. 12, 323 (1999).
H. Van Swygenhoven, P.M. Derlet, and A. Hasnaoui: Interaction between dislocations and grain boundaries under an indenter—A molecular dynamics simulation. Acta Mater. 52, 2251 (2004).
V. Yamakov, D. Wolf, S.R. Phillpot, A.K. Mukherjee, and H. Gleiter: Deformation-mechanism map for nanocrystalline metals by molecular-dynamics simulation. Nat. Mater. 3, 43 (2004).
J. Giallonardo, G. Avramovic-Cingara, G. Palumbo, and U. Erb: Microstrain and growth fault structures in electrodeposited nanocrystalline Ni and Ni-Fe alloys. J. Mater. Sci. 48, 6689 (2013).
S.C. Mehta, D.A. Smith, and U. Erb: Study of grain growth in electrodeposited nanocrystalline nickel-1.2 wt% phosphorus alloy. Mater. Sci. Eng., A 204, 227 (1995).
X. Wu, E. Ma, and Y.T. Zhu: Deformation defects in nanocrystalline nickel. J. Mater. Sci. 42, 1427 (2007).
Y.M. Wang, A.V. Hamza, and E. Ma: Activation volume and density of mobile dislocations in plastically deforming nanocrystalline Ni. Appl. Phys. Lett. 86, 24197 (2005).
Z. Shan, E.A. Stach, J.M.K. Wiezorek, J.A. Knapp, D.M. Follstaedt, and S.X. Mao: Grain boundary-mediated plasticity in nanocrystalline nickel. Science 305, 654 (2004).
C.D. Gu, J.S. Lian, Q. Jiang, and W.T. Zheng: Experimental and modelling investigations on strain rate sensitivity of an electrodeposited 20 nm grain sized Ni. J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 40, 7440 (2007).
Y.M. Wang and E. Ma: On the origin of ultrahigh cryogenic strength of nanocrystalline metals. Appl. Phys. Lett. 85, 2750 (2004).
F. Dalla Torre, P. Spatig, R. Schaublin, and M. Victoria: Deformation behaviour and microstructure of nanocrystalline electrodeposited and high pressure torsioned nickel. Acta Mater. 53, 2337 (2005).
Y.J. Wei, C. Su, and L. Anand: A computational study of the mechanical behavior of nanocrystalline fcc metals. Acta Mater. 54, 3177 (2006).
M. Srinivas, G. Malakndaiah, and P. Rama Rao: Fracture toughness of f.c.c. nickel and strain ageing b.c.c. iron in the temperature range 77–773 K. Acta Metall. Mater. 41, 1301 (1993).
P.G. Sanders, C.J. Youngdahl, and J.R. Weertman: The strength of nanocrystalline metals with and without flaws. Mater. Sci. Eng., A 234, 77 (1997).
F. Ebrahimi, D.G. Bourne, M.S. Kelly, and T.E. Matthews: Mechanical properties of nanocrystalline nickel produced by electrodeposition. Nanostruct. Mater. 11, 343 (1999).
H. Li and F. Ebrahimi: Synthesis and characterization of electrodeposited nanocrystalline nickel-iron alloys. Mater. Sci. Eng., A 347, 93 (2003).
L. Lu, R. Schwaiger, Z.W. Shan, M. Dao, K. Lu, and S. Suresh: Nano-sized twins induce high rate sensitivity of flow stress in pure copper. Acta Mater. 53, 2169 (2005).
J. Lian and B. Baudelet: A modified Hall-petch relationship for Nanocrysalline materials. Nanostruct. Mater. 2, 415 (1993).
R.A. Masumura, P.M. Hazzledine, and C.S. Pande: Yield stress of fine grained materials. Acta Mater. 46, 4527 (1998).
H. Conrad and J. Narayan: On the grain size softening in nanocrystalline materials. Scr. Mater. 42, 1025 (2000).
H. Conrad and J. Narayan: Mechanisms for grain size hardening and softening in Zn. Acta Mater. 50, 5067 (2002).
G.J. Fan, H. Choo, P.K. Liaw, and E.J. Lavernia: A model for the inverse Hall–Petch relation of nanocrystalline materials. Mater. Sci. Eng., A 409, 243 (2005).
C.E. Carlton and P.J. Ferreira: What is behind the inverse Hall–Petch effect in nanocrystalline materials?Acta Mater. 55, 3749 (2007).
I. Brooks, P. Lin, G. Palumbo, G.D. Hibbard, and U. Erb: Analysis of hardness–tensile strength relationships for electroformed nanocrystalline materials. Mater. Sci. Eng., A 491, 412 (2008).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) and the Ontario Research Fund (ORF).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Tang, B.T.F., Zhou, Y., Zabev, T. et al. Reduced hardening of nanocrystalline nickel under multiaxial indentation loading. Journal of Materials Research 30, 3528–3541 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1557/jmr.2015.321
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1557/jmr.2015.321