Abstract
We examine actions taken in the three Baltic states to (re-)establish their national languages in de facto multilingual surroundings. The implementation processes and initial impact of language ideology and language regulation on the language practices and socio-political participation of Soviet-period immigrants and their descendants living in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania are described. In presenting a comparative cross-Baltic overview of language practices we discuss the national differences in connection with citizenship and political participation, population distribution and labour market surroundings. Our empirical data are draw from sociological surveys, population statistics and labour market segregation analyses. We focus on the interaction between regulations, language practices and social structural surroundings asking: How has the national language establishment shaped labour market practices, citizenship and education expectations? And vice versa: What could be the effect of the social surroundings on the formation of the language practices? We conclude that despite their different structural provisions, Estonia and Lithuania face somewhat similar future challenges in terms of creating a culturally more integrated education system. The minority agents when confronted with existing policy requirements have fewer possibilities to produce their own (alternative) solutions since ethnicity or language-driven social marginalization is perceived more as a problem here. In Latvia, the minority representatives seem to have sufficient resources in the private sphere to “slow down” existing state level language requirements, which enables them to create suitable surroundings for the ongoing maintenance of the Latvian-Russian multilingual environment.
Resümee
Artiklis analüüsitakse Balti riikide keelepoliitikaid esimese kahekümne iseseisvusaasta jooksul. Pärast nõuogude okupatsiooni uuesti ülesehitatavate rahvusriikide missiooniks on eesti/läti/leedu keele ja kultuuri säilimine ja arendamine. Kõrvuti selle eesmärgiga on riikide ees teine raske ülesanne – lõimida ühiskonda nõukogude perioodil sisserännanud ja nende järeltulijad – arvukas vene emakeelega elanikkond. Artiklis antakse võrdlev ülevaade peamisest tegevustest riigikeele kehtestamisel ning analüüsitakse poliitilise, demograafilise ning majandusliku keskkonna soodustavat ning takistavat mõju venekeelse elanikkonna keelepraktikate muutumisele, poliitilisele osalusele ja tööturupraktikatele. Analüüsis kasutatakse sotsioloogiliste uuringute ning rahvastikustatistika andmeid ja tööturu segregatsiooni näitajaid. Artikkel keskendub kahele küsimusele. Esiteks – milline on keelepoliitiliste regulatsioonide, keelepraktikate ja sotsiaalse struktuuri omavaheline vastasmõju? Teiseks – kuidas on riigikeele kehtestamise poliitika kujundanud tööturupraktikaid ja vastupidi, milline on ümbritseva sotsiaal-majandusliku keskkonna mõju keelepraktikate kujunemisele? Analüüsist järeldub, et Eesti ja Leedu väljakutsed on sarnased – luua kultuuriliselt lõimitum haridussüsteem selleks, et vältida osa vene kodukeelega noorte marginaliseerumist. Erinevalt Eestist ja Leedust on Läti vene vähemusel tööturul ja erasektoris küllatki tugev positsioon, mis võimaldab riikliku keelepoliitika nõudmisi pehmendada ning nende mõjulepääsu aeglustada, säilitades Läti elanike läti-vene kakskeelsust ja vene keele positsiooni mitteametliku kohaliku keelena.
Pезюме
Мы оцениваем действия, предпринятые в трех странах Балтии для установления их национальных языков в de facto многоязычном окружении. Здесь описаны способы осуществления и изначальное влияние языковой идеологии и языкового регулирования на языковые практики и социально-политическое участие иммигрантов советского периода и их потомков, живущих в Эстонии, Латвии и Литве. Мы опираемся на эмпирическую очевидность, отраженную в социологических исследованиях, статистике народонаселения и анализе сегрегации на рынке труда. Мы концентрируемся на взаимодействии между регулированием, языковыми практиками и социальной средой, задаваясь вопросом: как установление национальных языков сформировало практики рынка труда, ожидания в отношении гражданства и образования? И наоборот: каково может быть влияние социального окружения на формирования языковых практик? Мы приходим к выводу, что несмотря на различные структурные предпосылки, Эстония и Литва столкнулись со схожими вызовами в плане создания более культурно интегрированной системы образования. Здесь меньшинства, сталкиваясь с имеющимися политическими требованиями, имеют меньше возможностей производить свои собственные (альтернативные) решения, поскольку этничность или обусловленная языком социальная маргинализация воспринимается здесь в большей степени как проблема. В Латвии же, по видимому, меньшинства имеют достаточно ресурсов в частной сфере для того, чтобы смягчить существующие языковые требования государства. Tаким образом создается подходящая среда для продолжающегося сохранения латышско-русской многоязычной среды.
Zusammenfassung
Wir untersuchen gewählte Handlungsstränge in den drei baltischen Staaten Estland, Lettland und Litauen zur Wiederherstellung des offiziellen Status und der Funktionalität der jeweiligen Staatssprachen in ihren tatsächlich mehrsprachigen Umgebungen. Wir besprechen nationale Unterschiede im Zusammenhang mit Staatsbürgerschaft und politischer Teilnahme, der Bevölkerungsverteilung und den Arbeitsmarktumgebungen. Im Hinblick auf die Wechselwirkungen zwischen Sprachregelungen, Sprachpraxis und soziostrukturellen Faktoren fragen wir: Wie hat sich die Landesspracheneinrichtung auf die Arbeitsmarktpraxis, Staatsbürgerschaft und Ausbildungserwartungen ausgewirkt? Und umgekehrt: Was könnte die Auswirkung der Sozialumgebungen auf Sprachpraktika sein? Empirisch beziehen wir uns auf soziologische Übersichten, Bevölkerungsstatistiken und Arbeitsmarktsegregationssanalysen.
Resumen
Analizamos las acciones llevadas a cabo en tres repúblicas bálticas para (re)establecer su lengua nacional en entornos multilingües de facto. Se describe el establecimiento e impacto inicial de la ideología lingüística y la regulación lingüística de las prácticas lingüísticas y la participación socio-política de los inmigrantes del periodo soviético y sus descendientes con residencia en Estonia, Latvia y Lituania. Al presentar una visión global comparada de las prácticas lingüísticas a lo largo del Báltico, se analizan las diferencias nacionales en lo relativo a ciudadanía y participación política, distribución de la población y entornos del mercado de trabajo. Nuestros datos empíricos proceden de encuestas sociológicas, estadísticas de población y análisis de segregación del mercado de trabajo. Nos centramos en la interacción entre regulaciones, prácticas lingüísticas y entornos sociales para contestar la siguiente pregunta: ¿De qué forma ha condicionado el sistema de lengua nacional las prácticas del mercado laboral, la ciudadanía y las expectativas educativas? Y viceversa: ¿Cuál puede ser la influencia del entorno social en la formación de las prácticas lingüísticas? Se concluye que, a pesar de sus diferencias en condicionamientos estructurales, Estonia y Lituania se enfrentan a similares retos futuros en términos de creación de un sistema educativo de mayor integración cultural. Cuando los agentes minoritarios tienen que enfrentarse a requisitos derivados de políticas ya en vigor, tienen menos posibilidades de ofrecer sus propias soluciones (alternativas) dado que en estas condiciones la etnicidad o la marginalización social de origen lingüístico se perciben más como problema. En Latvia los representantes de la minoría parecen contar con suficientes recursos en la esfera privada para “ralentizar” los requisitos estatales de nivel lingüístico, lo que les permite crear contextos apropiados para el mantenimiento en el tiempo de entornos multilingües latvio-rusos.
About the authors
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by the European Union through the European Regional Development Fund (Center of Excellence CECT) and by the Estonian Science Foundation through grant no 8347.
References
Analysis of the Implementation of Bilingual Education 2002, Riga: The Baltic Institute of Social Science.Search in Google Scholar
Commercio, Michele. 2008. Systems of Partial Control: Ethnic Dynamics in Post-Soviet Estonia and Latvia. Studies in Comparative International Development 43. 81–100.10.1007/s12116-007-9013-5Search in Google Scholar
Commercio, Michele. 2010. Russian Minority Politics in Post-Soviet Latvia and Kyrgyzstan: The Transformative Power of Informal Networks. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.10.9783/9780812204704Search in Google Scholar
Djackova, Svetlana. 2011a. Linguistic integration in Latvia. In Estonian Human Development Re-port 2010/2011, 124–126. Tallinn: Eesti Koostöö Kogu. See also a reference to EHDR 2010/11.Search in Google Scholar
Djackova, Svetlana 2011b. Latvian experience – first outcomes. In Estonian Human Development Report 2010/2011, 132–133. Tallinn: Eesti Koostöö Kogu. See also a reference to EHDR 2010/11.Search in Google Scholar
Druviete, Ina. 1997. Linguistic human rights in the Baltic states. International Journal of Sociology of Language 127. 161–185.10.1515/ijsl.1997.127.161Search in Google Scholar
EHDR 2010/2011. Estonian Human Development Report 2010/2011. http://kogu.ee/public/eia2011/eia_eng_2011.pdf (accessed 30.12.2012).Search in Google Scholar
EIM 2011. Integratsiooni Monitooring [Estonian Integration Monotoring]. A survey report compiled by AS Emor, Praxis Center for Policy Studies, The University of Tartu. Contracting entity Ministry of Culture. Authors: M. Lauristin, E. Kaal, L. Kirss, T. Kriger, A. Masso, K. Nurmela, K. Seppel, T. Tammaru, M. Uus, P. Vihalemm, T. Vihalemm. T http://www.kul.ee/webeditor/files/integratsioon/Integratsiooni_monitooring_2011.pdf (accessed 30.12.2012).Search in Google Scholar
Hazans, Mihails. 2010. Ethnic minorities in the Latvian labour market, 1997–2009: Outcomes, integration drivers and barriers, In Nils Muižnieks (ed.), How Integrated Is Latvian Society?, 125–158. Riga: University of Latvia Press.Search in Google Scholar
Hogan-Brun, Gabrielle and Ramonienė, Meilute. 2002. Locating Lithuanian in the (re-)intellectualisation debate. Current Issues in Language Planning 3 (1). 62–75.10.1080/14664200208668037Search in Google Scholar
Hogan-Brun, Gabrielle and Ramonienė, Meilute. 2003. Emerging language and education policies in Lithuania. Language Policy 2. 27–45.10.1023/A:1022933612844Search in Google Scholar
Heller, Monica. 2001. Gender and public space in a bilingual school. In Aneta Pavlenko, Adrian Blackledge, Ingrid Piller & Marya Teutsch-Dwyer (eds.), Multilingualism, second languagelearning, and gender (Language, Power and Social Process 6), 257–282. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter.Search in Google Scholar
Hogan-Brun, Gabrielle and Ramonienė, Meilute. 2005a. The language situation in Lithuania. Journal of Baltic Studies 36(3). 345–370.10.1080/01629770500000131Search in Google Scholar
Hogan-Brun, Gabrielle and Ramonienė, Meilute. 2005b. Perspectives on language attitudes and use in Lithuania’s multilingual setting. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 26 (5). 425–441.10.1080/01434630508668414Search in Google Scholar
Hogan-Brun, Gabrielle. 2009a. The politics of language and citizenship in the Baltic context. In: Guus Extra, Massimiliano Spotti and Piet van Avermaet (eds.), Language Testing, Migration and Citizenship, 37–55. London/New York: Continuum International Publishing Group.Search in Google Scholar
Hogan-Brun Gabrielle. 2009b. Contesting social space through language education debates in Latvia’s media landscape. In: Aleksandra Galasinksa, Mikhal Krzyzanowsky (eds.), Discourse and Transformation in Central and Eastern Europe, 59–74. Houndsmills/New York: Palgrave Macmillan.10.1057/9780230594296_4Search in Google Scholar
Hogan-Brun, Gabrielle, Ozolins, Uldis, Ramoniene, Meiluite, Rannut, Mart. (2009). Language Politics and Practices in the Baltic States. Tallinn:Tallinn University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Kolstø, Pal. (1999). Territorialising Diasporas: The Case of Russians in the Former Soviet Republics. Millennium–Journal of International Studies 28 (3). 607–631.10.1177/03058298990280031101Search in Google Scholar
Kolstø, Pal. (2000). Political Construction Sites: Nation-building in Russia and the Post-Soviet States. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press.Search in Google Scholar
Konickaja Marija. 2009. Социолингвистическая ситуация в г. Висагинасе. [Socio-linguistic situation in the city of Visaginas]. Supplement to Journal of the Humanities, Letonika, 146–157.Search in Google Scholar
Krūma, Kristīne. 2010. Integration and Naturalisation Tests: The New Way to European Citizenship. Centre for Migration Law, Radboud University Nijmegen. http://www.google.ee/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&ved=0CBwQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ru.nl%2Fpublish%2Fpages%2F621216%2Flatvia_intec_final.pdf&ei=J6SPULDbB6TJ0AXP2oGYCQ&usg=AFQjCNF0XJ7M-v9gGG4lviNsC9p5IhIfYw (accessed 30.12.2012)Search in Google Scholar
Lagerspetz, Mikko. 2001. Consolidation as Hegemonization: The Case of Estonia’. Journal of Baltic Studies 32 (4). 402–420.10.1080/01629770100000171Search in Google Scholar
Laitin. David. 2003. Three models of integration and the Estonian/Russian reality. Journal of Baltic Studies 34 (2). 197–223.10.1080/01629770300000041Search in Google Scholar
Lindemann, Kristiina. 2011. The labour market success of ethnic groups: The reality and perceived perspectives. In Ellu Saar (ed.), Towards a Normal Stratification Order. Actual and perceived Stratification in Post-Socialist Estonia. 283–307. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.Search in Google Scholar
Lindemann, Kristina, and Vöörmann, Rein. 2010. Second generation Russians in the Estonian labour market. In: Estonian Human Development Report 2009, 99–101. Tallinn: Eesti Ekspressi Kirjastus, 99–101. See also a reference to EHDR 2009Search in Google Scholar
Masso, Anu and Kello, Katrin. 2011. Minority education in the context of language and integration policy. Estonian Human Development Report 2010/2011, 129–132. Tallinn: Eesti Koostöö Kogu. See also a reference to EHDR 2010/11Search in Google Scholar
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Latvia. “Minority Education in Latvia”http://www.mfa.gov.lv/en/policy/4641/4642/4643/ (accessed: 17.10.2012).Search in Google Scholar
MISA (2012). Applying for citizenship. Information for applicants. http://www.meis.ee/kodakondsuse_taotlejale_eng (accessed: 17.10.2012).Search in Google Scholar
Monden, Christiaan, and Smits Jeroen. 2005. Ethnic Intermarriage in Times of Social Change: The Case of Latvia. Demography 42(2). 323–45.10.1353/dem.2005.0015Search in Google Scholar
Morris, Helen. 2003. EU Enlargement and Latvian citizenship policy. Journal of Ethnopolitics and Minority Issues in Europe 1.1–38.Search in Google Scholar
OECD (2003). Determinants of earnings in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. Compiled by M. Hazans, R. Eamets, J. Earle. www.oecd.org/dataoecd/18/10/2493411.pdf (accessed: 18.10.2012).Search in Google Scholar
Pilkington, Hilary. 1998. Migration, Displacement and Identity in Post-Soviet Russia. London: Routledge.Search in Google Scholar
Priedite, Aija. 2005. Surveying Language Attitudes and Practices in Latvia. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 26 (5). 409–424.10.1080/01434630508668413Search in Google Scholar
Ramonienė Meilute. 2006. Teaching Lithuanian as a Second/Foreign Language: Current Practices. In: Eesti Rakenduslingvistika Ühingu aastaraamat 2 [Estonian Papers in Applied Linguistics 2], 219–230. Tallinn.10.5128/ERYa2.15Search in Google Scholar
Ramoniene, Meilute. 2011. Adaptation to Lithuanian at the second language among minor ethno-linguistic groups. In: Estonian Human Development Report 2010/2011, 126–129. Tallinn: Eesti Koostöö Kogu. See also a reference to EHDR 2010/11Search in Google Scholar
Rannut, Mart. 2008. Estonization Efforts Post-Independence. The International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 11 (3&4). 423–438.10.1080/13670050802148780Search in Google Scholar
The Aspect of Culture in the Social Inclusion of Ethnic Minorities (2006). Evaluation of the Impact of Inclusion Policies under the Open Method of Co-ordination in the European Union: Assessing the Cultural Policies of Six Member States. Final Report. Latvia. Complied by B. Zepa, I. Lāce, E. Kĝave & I. Šūpule. Baltic Institute of Social Sciences, October 2006. eucenter.wisc.edu/OMC/…/ECMI_Report_60_OMC_Evaluation.pdf (accessed 30.10.2012).Search in Google Scholar
Rozenvalds, Juris. 2010. The Soviet Heritage and Integration Policy Development Since the Restoration of Independence. In: Nils Muižnieks/ed.) How Integrated Is Latvian Society? 33–60. Riga: University of Latvia Press.Search in Google Scholar
Šalme, Arvils. 2006. New trends in teaching Latvian as a second language in the process of educational transformation. Riga: University of Latvia PhD thesis.Search in Google Scholar
Siiner, Maarja. 2006. Planning Language Practice: A Sociolinguistic Analysis of Language Policy in Post-Communist Estonia. Language Policy 5 (2). 161–186.10.1007/s10993-006-9004-9Search in Google Scholar
Siiner, Maarja and Vihalemm, Triin. 2011. Language policy initiatives in Estonia and their influence on actual language use.In: Estonian Human Development Report 2010/2011, 118–121. Tallinn: Eesti Koostöö Kogu. See also a reference to EHDR 2010/11Search in Google Scholar
Smith, David. 2003. Minority Rights, Multiculturalism and EU Enlargement: The Case of Estonia. Journal on Ethnopolitics and Minority Issues in Europe 1.1–10.Search in Google Scholar
Tomusk, Ilmar. 2010: Kakskümmend aastat Eesti keelepoliitikat. [Twenty years of Estonian language policy]. www.just.ee/44104 (accessed 30.10.2012).Search in Google Scholar
Van Meurs, Wim. 2003. Social Citizenship and Non-migration: The Immobility of the Russian Diaspora in the Baltics. In: Rainer Munz and Rainer Ohliger (eds.), Diasporas and Ethnic Migrants: Germany, Israel and Post-Soviet Successor States in Comparative Perspective. London: Frank Cass.Search in Google Scholar
Verschik, Anna. 2005. Russian-Estonian language contact, linguistic creativity, and convergence: new rules in the making. Multilingua 24. 413–422.Search in Google Scholar
Vihalemm, Triin, and Siiner, Maarja. 2011. Language and integration policies of the Baltic states in the EU context. In: Estonian Human Development Report 2010/2011,118–121. Tallinn: Eesti Koostöö Kogu. See also a reference to EHDR 2010/11.Search in Google Scholar
Vihalemm, Triin, Siiner, Maarja, Masso, Anu. 2011. Introduction: language skills as a factor in human development. In: Estonian Human Development Report 2010/2011, 116–118. Tallinn: Eesti Koostöö Kogu. See also a reference to EHDR 2010/11.Search in Google Scholar
Vihalemm, Triin. 1992. Keelesituatsioonist Eesti meditsiiniasutustes. [The usage of languages in Estonian health care institutions]. Eesti Arst 5. 343–348.Search in Google Scholar
Vihalemm, Triin. 1993. The adaptation of non-Estonians into Estonians society. Tartu: University of Tartu MA thesis.Search in Google Scholar
Vihalemm, Triin.1999. Estonian language competence, performance and beliefs on acquisition among the Russian-speaking inhabitants of Estonia 1989–1995. International Journal of Sociology of Language 139. 69–85.Search in Google Scholar
Vihalemm, Triin. 2008. Keeleoskus ja hoiakud [Language competence and language attitudes]. In: Raivo Vetik (ed.), Eesti ühiskonna integratsiooni monitooring 2008 [Integration Monitoring of Estonian Society], 71–80. Tallinn: Integratsiooni Sihtasutus ja Rahvastikuministri Büroo.Search in Google Scholar
Zepa, Brigita. 2010. Education for social integration. In: Nils Muižnieks (ed.), How Integrated Is Latvian Society? 189–222. Riga: University of Latvia Press.Search in Google Scholar
Appendix 1. Population by ethnicity and mother tongue in the Baltic states according to census 2011
Estonia | Latvia | Lithuania | |
Total population[none] | 1 294 236 | 2 070 371 | 3 043 429 |
Number and share of Estonians/Latvians/Lithuanians | 889 770 (68.7%) | 1 285 136 (62%) | 2 561 314 (84%) |
Number and share of two biggest minority groups | Russians 321 198 (24.8%) Ukrainians 22 302 (1.7%) | Russians 557 119 (26.9%) Belorusians 68 202 (3.3%) | Poles 200 317 (6.6%) Russians 176913 (5.8%) |
Share and number of people whose mother tongue is different from the national language | 407 377 (31,5%) (–1.5%[*]) | 905 477 (43.7%) (+1.7%*) | 628,192[**] (18%**) |
Number and share of people whose mother tongue is Estonian/main home language is Latvian | 886 859 68.5% | 1 164 894 56% | Data not available yet |
Number and share of people whose mother tongue/main home language is Russian | 383 062 29.6% | 698 757 34% | Data not available yet |
Change in the share of titular ethnic group from 1989–2011 | 61.5–68.7% | 52–62% | 79.6–84% |
Change in the share of Russians from 1989–2011 | 30.3–24.8% | 34–26.9% | 9.4–5.8% |
Change in the share of other ethnic groups from 1989–2011[none] | 8.2–6.5% | 14–11.1% | 4–3.6% |
Appendix 2. Socio-demographic profile of people with passive or active command in national language (100% of all people in the relevant subsample)
Estonia | Latvia | Lithuania | ||||||
Passive command in Estonian | Active command in Estonian | All people whose L1 is Russian | Passive command in Latvian | Active command in Latvian | All people whose L1 is Russian | Active[*] command in Lithuanian | All people whose L1 is Russian | |
Higher education | 18 | 37 | 21 | 15,5 | 26,5 | 21,5 | 20 | 17 |
Secondary education | 68 | 65 | 63 | 68 | 57 | 61 | 67 | 67 |
Primary education | 18 | 10 | 16 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 20 | 18 |
Self-employed | 7 | 2,5 | 5 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 |
Manager, top specialist | 6 | 15 | 8 | 3 | 12 | 10 | 4 | 2,5 |
Specialist, clerk, service staff | 6 | 26 | 11 | 10 | 22 | 16 | 13 | 15 |
Worker | 28 | 16 | 25 | 22 | 13 | 21 | 18 | 12 |
Unemployed | 19 | 10 | 14,5 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 29 | 23,5 |
Retired | 22 | 5 | 19 | 33 | 15 | 23,5 | 16 | 25 |
Student, pupil | 8 | 19 | 11,5 | 5 | 11 | 8 | 18 | 12 |
© 2013 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
