Abstract
The glyoxalase enzyme system utilizes intracellular thiols such as glutathione to convert α-ketoaldehydes, such as methylglyoxal, into D-hydroxyacids. This overview discusses several main aspects of the glyoxalase system and its likely function in the cell. The control of methylglyoxal levels in the cell is an important biochemical imperative and high levels have been associated with major medical symptoms that relate to this metabolite’s capability to covalently modify proteins, lipids and nucleic acid.
Introduction
The glyoxalase enzyme system is a group of enzymes that overall convert α-ketoaldehydes into D-hydroxyacids (1–5). In the case of methylglyoxal (MG), D-lactate is the product. There are several glyoxalase enzymes that have been identified. Glyoxalase I (Glo1) converts a non-enzymatically formed hemithioacetal, the adduct between an intracellular thiol such as glutathione (GSH) and a metabolically produced α-ketoaldehyde such as MG, into a thioester product (Figure 1) (6–9). In the case of MG and GSH, S-D-lactoylglutathione is the product. Glyoxalase II (Glo2) hydrolyzes this thioester into D-lactate and regenerates the intracellular thiol GSH. Glo1 and Glo2 work in tandem to convert cytoxic MG into D-lactate. Interestingly, it has been determined that another enzyme, termed glyoxalase III (Glo3) is capable of directly converting MG into D-lactate/L-lactate, depending on the source of the enzyme (10–12) (Figure 1). The continuing focus on these enzymes, their structure-function, and their identification from various biological sources is an important area of biochemistry. Studies on the biochemistry of MG, its reaction with biomolecules in the cell, the analysis of these modifications, and the resulting cellular and physiological outcomes are also of major concern (13–16). This area of biochemistry has continued to be of interest as evidenced by a recent international conference organized by the Biochemical Society in 2013 celebrating the 100-year anniversary of glyoxalase research. The resulting publications from that conference are highly recommended to the reader (17–19). The overview presented in this current article hopes to capture the major themes of research in this area and also provide additional recent literature (to August 2015) to add to the reader’s appreciation of this field.
Reaction schemes for the glyoxalase enzymes.
Methylglyoxal
MG is present in all cells and its concentration at any moment is a result of its production by both non-enzymatic (major) and enzymatic mechanisms as well as its degradation by the glyoxalase enzymes and other enzymes of varying importance capable of oxidatively or reductively metabolizing it (20–23). Non-enzymatic conversion of triose phosphates such as dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (GAP), which are normal intermediates in the glycolytic pathway, can occur in aqueous solutions which can complicate the determination of MG concentrations and glycation labeling in biological solutions and tissues (24–26) (Figure 2). Indeed, the non-enzymatic conversion of triose phosphates to MG in cells is considered to be the major contributor to MG cellular levels. Mechanistically, the removal of a proton alpha to the carbonyl present in DHAP/GAP results in the elimination of inorganic phosphate through the intermediacy of the enediolate phosphate, 3-phospho-2, 3-ene-diol. The glycolysis pathway enzyme triose phosphate isomerase (TIM) increases the observed rate of MG formation in the presence of DHAP/GAP as this enzyme catalyzes the net conversion of DHAP to GAP, GAP having a higher rate of non-enzymatic elimination of inorganic phosphate than DHAP to form MG (25, 26). In rat tissues, MG formation has been estimated to be approximately 0.4 mm per day taking into account contributions by TIM (26). In humans the whole body rate of formation of MG has been estimated to be approximately 3 mmol per day (16). The glyoxalase system and various aldo-keto oxidoreductases metabolize the MG, and substantially, but not completely, protect cells from MG toxicity (14, 27, 28).
Some of the biological pathways that lead to and from MG including the position of the enzymes Glo1, Glo2 and Glo3.
Enzymatic formation of MG is also known, and these organism-dependent pathways vary in their overall contribution to MG production. A direct enzymatic route for the production of MG through the activity of the enzyme MG synthase has been identified in Escherichia coli (29–31). The enzyme catalyzes MG formation from DHAP (Figure 2). Triose phosphate isomerase-deficient mutants of E. coli were observed to accumulate MG in these bacteria. MG synthase has been isolated and it has been hypothesized that in concert with the glyoxalase system, the resulting D-lactate is converted to pyruvate by the bacterial enzyme D-lactate dehydrogenase. The overarching metabolic scheme (MG → → pyruvate) bypasses the formation of pyruvate by the usual glycolytic pathway (Figure 2). Inorganic phosphate (Pi) was observed to inhibit the E. coli MG synthase, an observation that suggested that this “glycolytic bypass” is likely activated in E. coli under environmental conditions where (Pi) is limiting (29). The redirection of DHAP consumption occurring in the “glycolytic bypass” would conserve the existing Pi cellular pool, thus permitting Pi-dependent phosphorylation steps such as that found in the GAP dehydrogenase catalyzed reaction in glycolysis to continue. Threonine catabolism can yield MG through the intermediacy of aminoacetone, which is subsequently oxidized to MG by a monoamine oxidase (32). MG has also been shown to be a product from the oxidation of acetone (acetone → acetol → MG) as catalyzed by select cytochrome P450 enzymes (33, 34).
Aldo-keto oxidoreductases
As will be discussed below, MG is a highly electrophilic molecule and can covalently label proteins/enzymes, DNA, and other biomolecules. In order to avoid the cytotoxicity of MG and that of other α-ketoaldehydes such as glyoxal, phenylglyoxal and hydroxypyruvaldehyde, cells have developed enzymatic systems to metabolize MG. One set of enzymes is the aldo-keto oxidoreductases. NADPH-dependent oxidoreductases that catalyze the conversion of MG to acetol or lactaldehyde have been identified in various bacteria and mammals (35–38). MG reductase has been identified in fungi and in mammalian liver homogenates and catalyzes the conversion of MG to lactaldehyde (39–41). Some Clostridia species utilize the enzyme glycerol dehydrogenase to decrease cellular MG concentrations by first reducing MG to acetol likely by an aldose reductase, which is followed by reduction to 1,2-propanediol by glycerol dehydrogenase (42). It has been suggested that the protozoan Trypanosoma brucei utilizes an MG reductase to detoxify this compound, resulting in the production of L-lactaldehyde, although some uncertainty in this proposal has been expressed. It is clear however, that the enzyme Glo1 is not present in this organism (22, 43, 44).
Glyoxalase enzymes
Another set of enzymes that play a role in protecting cells from the cytotoxicity of MG is the glyoxalase set of enzymes. These enzymes make a major contribution to MG detoxification in most cells.
Glo1
The most extensively investigated glyoxalase enzymes are Glo1 and Glo2. Glyoxalase I (Glo1; S-D-lactoylglutathione MG lyase (isomerizing); EC 4.4.1.5) is the first of a pair of enzymes of the glyoxalase enzyme system that work in tandem to convert MG to D-lactate (Figure 1). The substrate for Glo1 is the hemithioacetal, formed non-enzymatically from the nucleophilic reaction between the cellular tripeptide GSH and MG (23, 44–46). It should be pointed out that a recent study on yeast Glo1 has indicated that the best fit to the experimental kinetic data was the situation where a GSH-Glo1 binary complex was formed initially in the active site of the yeast enzyme with subsequent binding of MG to form the ternary complex hemithioacetal in the active site of the enzyme (47). These interesting initial findings warrant further investigation and a determination as to whether this mechanism also extends to Glo1 enzymes from other organisms.
Numerous Glo1 enzymes are widespread in nature, yet a few organisms appear not to harbor a Glo1 enzyme. Although T. brucei appears to lack Glo1 (although T. brucei is suggested to have a MG reductase that reduces MG to L-lactataldehyde as mentioned previously), T. cruzi does contain an active Glo1 (44, 48, 49). Giardia lamblia and Entamoeba histolytica however, lack Glo1 based on genome analyses (49). The predominant use of the glyoxalase enzymes to detoxify MG and other reactive dicarbonyls has resulted in intense interest in ameliorating our understanding of the structure-function relationships of these enzymes. Early research had shown that Glo1 is a Zn2+-activated metalloenzyme when isolated from biological sources such as yeast, mammals, and Pseudomonas putida (7, 50–52). Nevertheless, metal ions such as Co2+, Mn2+, Ni2+, and even Mg2+ were also found to activate the Glo1 isolated from these sources (53). This foundational research indicated a broad metal promiscuity for Glo1, although metal reconstitution experiments were technically challenging at times.
The X-ray structure of the homodimeric Glo1 from Homo sapiens bound to the inhibitor S-benzylglutathione provided the first detailed structural information on a Glo1 (54) (Figure 3). Two active sites each bound to octahedral Zn2+ were detected. Each Zn2+ was liganded by two amino acid residues from one subunit (His127, Glu173) and two residues (Gln34, Glu100) from the second subunit. Water molecules were also found proximal to the Zn2+ center and were likely liganded to the metal ion in the absence of the inhibitor. This information provided structural confirmation of previous biophysical studies that indicated that Glo1 maintains an octahedral metal coordination environment, with metal-bound H2O/OH- also participating (55–57). Although also expecting the isolated Escherichia coli Glo1 to be a Zn2+-activated enzyme, a surprising metal activation profile was observed for this enzyme, drastically different from previously studied Glo1 (58). A narrower metal activation profile was observed for the E. coli Glo1, with Ni2+ reconstitution providing the most active enzyme. Co2+ resulted in a lower activity Glo1 and Cd2+ and Mn2+ions activated the enzyme to only modest levels. Surprisingly, no enzyme activity was observed in the presence of Zn2+, a very different and unexpected characteristic.
Ribbon representation of H. sapiens glyoxalase I with S-benzylglutathione inhibitor bound to the active site.
The two subunits of the enzyme are colored green and red. Active site hexacoordinate Zn2+ is shown as a blue sphere with amino acid side chains from both subunits contributing to the binding of each active site zinc atom. The inhibitor (in ball-and-stick) is only shown in one active site for clarity. (PDB code: 1FRO).
Extended X-ray Absorption Fine Structure (EXAFS), X-ray Absorption Near Edge Structure (XANES) and X-ray crystallographic structure data were obtained on the E. coli Glo1 enzyme (59–61) (Figure 4). The enzyme is homodimeric in quaternary structure, which is similar to the H. sapiens Glo1. Analyses of the E. coli Glo1 structural data showed two active sites, each active site being formed by contributions from residues from each of the two subunits (Chain A: His74, Glu122; Chain B: His5, Glu56) with two water (or hydroxide) molecules present that complete the octahedral metal coordination. All metal ions that activated E. coli Glo1 had octahedral geometry in the active site of the enzyme. Zn2+, which did not activate the E. coli enzyme, did indeed bind. However, the coordination geometry was found to be close to trigonal bipyramidal, with only one H2O/OH- bound to the zinc center. Subsequent studies by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) elaborated on the inequivalence of the two active sites in the E. coli enzyme, accounting for previous solution studies (58, 62, 63). Additional studies on substrate thiol structure-function activities and kinetic isotope effects were reported for the E. coli Glo1 (64).
Ribbon representation of E. coli glyoxalase I.
The two subunits of the enzyme are colored green and red. Active site hexacoordinate Ni2+ is shown as a blue sphere with amino acid side chains from both subunits contributing to the binding of each active site nickel atom. Two water molecules shown as red spheres complete the active site metal coordination. (PDB 1F9Z).
Investigations of the metal-activation profiles for other Glo1 enzymes provided additional support for the two classes of Glo1. For example, the Leishmania major Glo1 was reported to lack Zn2+-activation, but was found to be fully active in the presence of Ni2+ ion (48). Additionally this enzyme was found to utilize the cellular thiol trypanothione (bis(glutathionyl)spermidine) as the thiol co-substrate for the enzyme (Figure 5). This thiol is exclusively found in parasitic protozoa of the order Kinetoplastida, such as trypanosomes and leishmania (44). Several of these organisms are the causative agents of certain human diseases such as Chagas disease and leishmaniasis. Other Ni2+-activation class Glo1 have been found in T. cruzi and Leishmania donovani (22, 65, 66). Recently a Glo1 utilizing the intracellular thiol bacillithiol was identified in Bacillus subtilis (67) (Figure 5). Studies investigating the metal activation characteristics of other bacterial Glo1 have also provided evidence for the existence of the Ni2+-activation class. For example, Glo1 from Neisseria meningitides, Yersinia pestis, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 were all found to substantially exhibit the same metal activation profiles as seen with the Glo1 from E. coli (68). Subsequently, two other open reading frames (ORFs) coding for putative Glo1 enzymes in the P. aeruginosa PAO1 genome were identified, and their gene products overproduced and studied (69). The Glo1 activity of the two additional putative Glo1 were confirmed in these studies. One of these Glo1 is shorter in length and has higher amino acid sequence homology to the E. coli and the first identified P. aeruginosa Glo1. This Glo1 exhibits the characteristics of the Ni2+-activation class enzymes, with no evidence for Zn2+ activation (the X-ray structure of this enzyme has recently been reported) (70). The third Glo1 has a longer amino acid sequence and a higher amino acid sequence homology to the human and the Pseudomonas putida Glo1, which are known Zn2+-activation class enzymes. This enzyme was found to be activated by Zn2+ and exhibited the “classic” promiscuous metal activation profile typical of the Zn2+-activation class of Glo1 enzymes. Little is currently known about the physiological importance of the presence of three Glo1 in P. aeruginosa PAO1, nor the possibility of differential expression of the Glo1s under various growth conditions. Although much speculation has centered on what mechanisms are used by Glo1 to control its metal specificity, a recent investigation has clearly delineated the contributions of various structural components to the metal-activation profile exhibited by Glo1 (71). Using deletional mutagenesis on the Zn2+-activated Glo1 enzyme from P. aeruginosa, researchers were able to completely switch the metal-activation class of the enzyme, to one where selective Ni2+ activation was exhibited. This research contributes to our further understanding of metalloenzymes and of Glo1 metal specificity in particular.
Chemical structures of trypanothione and bacillithiol.
Based on the quaternary structures and the subunit arrangements found for Glo1 enzymes for which X-ray structures had already been determined, it was assumed that, for homodimeric Glo1 enzymes, each of the two active sites would depend on amino acid residues from each of the two subunits to supply the metal ligating residues. This is clearly seen in the H. sapiens and the E. coli Glo1 X-ray structures (54, 61). Surprisingly, an alternate subunit orientation from the homodimeric subunit arrangement found in the H. sapiens and E. coli Glo1 was discovered as a result of structural genomics initiatives. The X-ray structure of the Glo1 enzyme from Clostridium acetobutylicum, which was found to exhibit Ni2+-activation class properties, was determined. Although the C. acetobutylicum Glo1 was confirmed to be dimeric by gel permeation chromatography, the X-ray structures determined for both the Zn2+-bound (inactive) and the Ni2+-activated Glo1 exhibited very different orientations of the subunits compared to the arrangements found in the H. sapiens and the E. coli Glo1 enzymes (72) (Figure 6). Both of these metallated forms of the C. acetobutylicum Glo1 have two active sites yet each active site is formed by contribution from only one of the subunits. All the amino acid residues that ligate a particular Ni2+ atom are contributed by only a single protein subunit. Yet the arrangements of coordinating ligands around the Ni2+ center are almost superimposable with those from the E. coli Glo1 enzyme. From these results, it is clear that Glo1 can maintain the required catalytically active octahedral geometry around the active site metal ion, yet provide that environment in two completely different ways. These results exemplify the capability of Nature to supply alternative scaffolds to construct identical active sites. It should also be noted that not all Glo1 enzymes are homodimeric. For example, the Glo1 from Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Plasmodium falciparum are both monomers, but have molecular weights that are double that of a “standard” subunit of a multisubunit Glo1 enzyme such as E. coli (73, 74). The S. cerevisiae Glo1 has two functioning active sites, each exhibiting slightly different kinetic properties and possibly metal activation profiles. On the other hand, it has been reported that the P. falciparum Glo1 exhibits allosterically coupled active sites having different substrate affinities (75). Recent reports have identified additional Ni2+-activation class Glo1 enzymes in plant systems, including single subunit enzymes of the same size as the S. cerevisiae and the P. falciparum Glo1 (76–79). These findings are being actively studied with respect to stress response systems in agricultural important crops, and should prove extremely important in addressing the effects of climate change and increasing global population on future food availability (78).
X-ray structure of Glo1 from Clostridium acetobutylicum (A) and Glo1 from Escherichia coli (B).
Note the close similarities in their active sites but the orientation differences of the two subunits between the two enzymes. (PDB: 3HDP and 1F9Z).
An additional aspect to the overall molecular structure of the Glo1 enzymes is that their protein fold is shared by other proteins in its structural class (βαβββ structural superfamily) yet these proteins exhibit a range of biological activities (54, 80, 81). Each protein subunit from a homodimeric Glo1 enzyme such as that from H. sapiens or E. coli is composed of two βαβββ structural domains. For the extended single chain Glo1 from S. cerevisiae and P. falciparum, based on protein homology modeling, four βαβββ domains are likely present. It has been proposed that the evolution of new structures and functions within this protein family likely arose from a combination of horizontal gene transfer and gene fusion events and possibly gene duplication events (79, 81). The possibility of three-dimensional domain swapping has also been proposed (52, 54). It is interesting to note that the Glo1 protein fold is also found in several βαβββ structural superfamily members that are involved in antibiotic resistance (82). Several of these proteins are important to the resistance of the antibiotic producing organism to the cytotoxic natural product that it produces. The resistance proteins usually act by binding the cytotoxic compound preventing cellular toxicity to the antibiotic producing organism, until the toxin can be controllably released outside the cell. For example, the bleomycin resistance protein from Streptoalloteichus hindustanus (83), the Streptomyces lavendulae mitomycin C resistance protein (84) and the thiocoraline peptide binding protein produced by strains of Micromonospora (85), all act to bind a cytotoxic molecule, lowering its toxicity to the antibiotic producing organism. These proteins have high structural similarity to Glo1. On the other hand, the fosfomycin resistance proteins (Fos A, B and X) are also structurally related to Glo1 but act by chemically degrading the reactive epoxide functionality in the antibiotic fosfomycin (82, 86, 87) (Figure 7). Fos A, B and X are metalloenzymes and use either intracellular thiols or water to accomplish the epoxide ring opening.
Chemical structure of the antibiotic fosfomycin.
Glo2
S-D-Lactoylglutathione is the product of the Glo1-catalyzed reaction if MG is the dicarbonyl substrate (Figure 1). The resulting thioester is the substrate for the hydrolytic reaction catalyzed by glyoxalase II (Glo2; S-2-hydroxyacylglutathione hydrolase, EC 3.1.2.6). In general, Glo2 hydrolyzes various α-hydroxythioesters to their non-cytotoxic α-hydroxycarboxylic acids, regenerating GSH. In the case of MG, D-lactate is produced after enzymatic conversion by the Glo1 and Glo2 enzyme pair. Three dimensional protein structures for a variety of Glo2 representatives have been reported and include Glo2 from H. sapiens, Arabidopsis thaliana, Leischmania infantum and Salmonella typhimurium (Figure 8) (88–91). In several organisms, two or more Glo2 enzymes have been identified and appear to differentially localize in cellular compartments such as the mitochondria and apicoplast depending on the particular organism (44, 92, 93). Glo2 is a binuclear metalloenzyme with Zn2+ as the frequently detected active site metal ion. The cytosolic and the mitochondrial Glo2 from A. thaliana, however, have been reported to contain varying ratios of Zn2+, Fe2+ and Mn2+ and exhibit broad metal activation, although it has been reported that the Zn2+/Fe2+ binuclear center is essential for optimal catalysis (94, 95). Ni2+ and Co2+ are also activating metal ions for the enzyme, depending upon the specific Glo2. The human Glo2 has also been shown to contain a mixed binuclear center with Zn2+ and Fe2+ present, although the mononuclear Zn2+ reconstituted enzyme is also active (96). As E. coli Glo1 was previously shown to be in a separate Glo1 metal activation class, that of the Ni2+-activation class, a study of E. coli Glo2 was undertaken to determine if the metal specificity of this enzyme was also unusual (97). The E. coli Glo2 enzyme was isolated with approximately two moles of Zn2+ bound per mole of active enzyme. Metal reconstitution studies were undertaken on the apoenzyme form of the E. coli Glo2. Activity regain was observed for reconstitution of the enzyme with either Mn2+ or Co2+but not Ni2+, indicating that Ni2+ activation was not observed in Glo2 as it was for the E. coli Glo1 enzyme. Hence Ni2+ activation is not a profile that occurs for both the Glo1 and the Glo2 enzyme pair in E. coli. A second Glo2, Glo2-2 (also termed GlxII-2) has just been reported from E. coli and makes a contribution to MG resistance in this organism, although it has a lower activity against the substrate, S-D-lactoylglutathione (98).
X-ray structure of the H. sapiens Glo2 with the binuclear Zn2+ atoms shown as blue spheres (PDB: 1QH5).
The Glo2 molecular structures share the same overall fold as the Zn2+-dependent metallo-β-lactamases, which are members of the larger Zn2+-metallohydrolase structural family of proteins (99, 100). The Glo2 enzyme is monomeric. Recent work has probed the substrate specificity variation with alteration of the metal reconstitution of various metallohydrolase protein family members, including Glo2 (101). The authors concluded that promiscuous activities of metalloenzymes can stem from an ensemble of metal isoforms in the cell, which could facilitate the functional divergence of metalloenzymes and engender new activities for the cell. The structural relatedness of family members in this superfamily has been nicely underscored by the conversion of a Glo2 into a functioning β-lactamase through protein evolution (102).
Glo3
Although Glo1 and Glo2 are major contributors to the metabolism of MG and likely other electrophilic dicarbonyl compounds formed within the cell, another protein exhibiting glyoxalase activity in E. coli has been identified (11). The enzyme, Glo3 (EC 4.2.1.130), was observed to directly convert MG into a D-lactate/L-lactate mixture without the necessity of a small molecular weight thiol such as GSH (12). Studies have shown that this enzyme functions as a heat-shock inducible chaperone, termed Hsp31 in E. coli, and is regulated by the RNA polymerase sigma factor (RpoS) (103, 104). A corresponding homolog is present in H. sapiens and is termed DJ-1, also exhibiting glyoxalase activity (105). Related proteins with Glo3 activities have been identified in yeasts, mice and the worm Caenorhabditis elegans (10, 105). It appears therefore that these chaperone proteins, which are usually noted for their ability to reduce protein folding errors and protein aggregation in the cell, may have a secondary role in handling reactive dicarbonyl compounds. The Glo3/Hsp31 E. coli protein is homodimeric in nature and has a native molecular mass of approximately 82 kDa (Figure 9) (11, 106). The E. coli Hsp31, H. sapiens DJ-1 and yeast YDR533Cp proteins have related structures and similar potential active sites, with Cys, His Glu/Asp residues present and a possible metal binding site. This molecular arrangement would likely favor reaction of the cysteine thiol with the electrophilic carbonyl of MG, aiding in the subsequent isomerization of the covalent MG-protein adduct to a thioester, with subsequent hydrolysis of this thioester intermediate (12).
X-ray structure of homodimeric E. coli Hsp31/Glo3 with two subunits colored in red and blue.
The active site containing Cys184, His185 and Asp213 as shown in one of the subunits in ball-and stick (yellow) (PDB:1N57).
It is clear that structural investigations on the glyoxalase enzymes can lead to new fundamental knowledge not only in the area of cellular physiology and MG toxicity but also in other areas such as antibiotic resistance and Hsp/chaperone biochemistry.
Advanced glycation end-products (AGE) and the dicarbonyl proteome
The buildup of MG is a deleterious situation for a cell, with drastic consequences to its normal homeostasis and even its viability (16, 20, 21, 107). The electrophilic nature of dicarbonyls, such as MG, dictates the nature of their interactions with biomolecules such as proteins, DNA, RNA and cellular membranes. Due to the extreme reactivity of the dicarbonyl functionality, multiple cellular sites can be modified, termed advanced glycation end-products (AGE), and the ensuing cellular state will be a composite of the additive/synergistic effects that result from the array of modified cellular targets (14, 108). The glyoxalase enzymes, along with other detoxification enzymes such as the aldoketo reductases, play critical roles in the removal of dicarbonyl compounds before they can react with molecular targets and produce cellular toxicity. Studies have attempted to identify the nature of the chemical modifications that are produced in the presence of MG and to quantitate their presence (16, 18, 109–112). Further research has contributed to the identification of some of the molecular targets labeled by MG and to the careful evaluation of the impact that these modifications have on human health.
The nature of several protein and nucleic acid modification reactions has been elucidated and, in the case of MG, reactions with arginine and lysine side chains are found to predominate for proteins (20, 33, 109, 110, 113, 114) (Figure 10). A range of chemical reactions has been found to occur with arginine side chains, the MG-H1 adduct is thought to be the most frequent arginine glycation modification, although several other adducts have been identified and include MG-H2, MG-H3, tetrahydropyrimidine (THP) and the fluorescent adduct argpyrimidine (1). A less frequently found modification, that of lysine modification, results in the formation of Nε-(carboxyethyl)lysine (CEL). Protein crosslinks have also been identified and include MG-lysine dimer (MOLD) and MG-derived imidazolium crosslinking (MODIC) crosslinks (14, 115) (Figure 11). DNA modification by MG can also occur and include adduct formation with deoxyguanosine nucleotides (110, 116, 117).
Chemical structures of identified MG-arginine and MG-lysine side chain protein adducts formed from advanced glycation end-product (AGE) formation. Atoms colored in red originate from MG.
Chemical structures of identified protein crosslinks formed due to advanced glycation end-product reactions with MG.
An intensely active area of current glyoxalase research is that of the correlation of MG, AGE and disease. Connections to vascular diseases, diabetic complications and diabetic neuropathy, and amyloid-type neurodegenerative disease, among other areas, are being investigated (13, 15, 118). In the area of vascular disease and diabetes, a recent study has reported that increased MG derived AGE appear to be associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular events in type 2 diabetic patients (119). Post-translationally glycated proteins are thought to exert their effects on cells by a receptor-mediated pathway that includes their interaction with a receptor recognizing AGE-modified proteins. The receptor, termed RAGE, is a member of the immunoglobulin superfamily of cell-surface receptors and specifically recognizes MG-modified AGEs (120). This interaction appears to result in cellular activation leading ultimately to inflammation-provoking tissue injury (13). AGEs produced by MG are believed to be an important molecular cause for pain associated with diabetic neuropathy due to the post-translational modification of ion channels in neurons that are contributors to chemosensation and action potential generation in nerve endings (121). A recent overview of the literature linking the potential health effects to the presence of MG and AGE indicates the wide-ranging physiological effects of these molecules (14).
It cannot be stated too strongly that the biochemical links between MG, biomolecule modification and resulting disease states are underpinned by excellent quality analytical identification and quantitation protocols (110, 122–128). The labile nature of DHAP and GAP can result in incorrect quantitation of MG levels in cells and tissues, the reactivity of MG and the non-permanence of AGE modifications add further complexities to this research area. Although challenging, investigations in these areas should prove intellectually as well as pragmatically rewarding well into the future.
Expert opinion
Substantial biochemical information has been obtained already on the enzymes involved in glyoxalase and MG biochemistry. Yet additional biochemical and structural investigations on new glyoxalase enzymes (Glo1, Glo2, Glo3) will allow for expanded understanding of metalloenzymes and the critical active site structures required to control metal activation profile and catalytic activity.
The identification of additional roles for MG and other dicarbonyls in biological tissues should be a future goal. The application of the current cadre of rigorous analytical methodology to identify and quantify dicarbonyl biomolecule modifications such as glycation and crosslinked biomolecules, termed AGE, should lead to a deeper understanding of the impact that these modifications have on tissues and organisms.
Outlook
It is likely that collaborative research on the enzymes that control the cellular concentration of dicarbonyls, and the further development of analytical techniques that better identify and quantitate the adducts formed by reaction of proteins and DNA with dicarbonyls will bring vastly improved appreciation for the underlying control and correction of certain diseases. This area will continue to focus on the chemistry and biochemistry of dicarbonyls and the additional fundamental knowledge will provide contributions to the understanding of a range of diseases, including cardiovascular disease and pain perception. Further advances in understanding the role of MG and the glyoxalase system in plants should be pivotal in improving crop yields and hence food stability
Highlights
MG formation and degradation in the cell is now well understood
advanced knowledge of the structure and function of enzymes that degrade MG in the cell is available
knowledge of the detailed chemical mechanisms of the Glo1, Glo2 and Glo3 detoxification enzymes is improved although future work is necessary
better understanding of metalloenzymes and how protein scaffolds control metal activation characteristics is available
robust analytical techniques as applied to metabolite analysis and MG protein and DNA modification are available
improved appreciation of AGE modifications as underlying contributors to various diseases is occurring
- List of abbreviations
- AGE
advanced glycation end-products
- CEL
Nε-(carboxyethyl)lysine
- DHAP
dihydroxyacetone phosphate
- EXAFS
extended X-ray absorption fine structure
- GAP
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
- Glo1
glyoxalase I
- Glo2
glyoxalase II
- Glo3
glyoxalase III
- GSH
glutathione
- Hsp
heat shock protein
- MG
methylglyoxal
- MODIC
methylglyoxal-derived imidazolium crosslinking
- MOLD
methylglyoxal-derived lysine dimer
- NADPH
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (phosphate) reduced
- NMR
nuclear magnetic resonance
- ORF
open reading frame
- RAGE
receptor for advanced glycation end-products
- RpoS
RNA polymerase sigma factor
- THP
tetrahydropyrimidine
- TIM
triose phosphate isomerase
- XANES
X-ray absorption near edge structure.
Acknowledgments
The Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC), the Ontario Government and the University of Waterloo are gratefully acknowledged for financial support. The author has no financial or other conflict of interest in the writing of this article.
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