Hedegaard, H., Miniño, A. M., and Warner, M., “Drug Overdose Deaths in the United States, 1999-2018,” Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2020, available at <https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/databriefs/db356.htm> (last visited April 20, 2020).Google Scholar

Martins, S. S., Sarvet, A., Santaella-Tenorio, J., Saha, T., Grant, B. F., and Hasin, D. S., “Changes in Us Lifetime Heroin Use and Heroin Use Disorder: Prevalence from the 2001-2002 to 2012-2013 National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions,” JAMA Psychiatry 74, no. 5 (2017): 445-455.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Saha, T. D., Kerridge, B. T., Goldstein, R. B., Chou, S. P., Zhang, H., Jung, J., Pickering, R. P., et al., “Nonmedical Prescription Opioid Use and Dsm-5 Nonmedical Prescription Opioid Use Disorder in the United States,” Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 77, no. 6 (2016): 772-780.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Florence, C. S., Zhou, C., Luo, F., and Xu, L., “The Economic Burden of Prescription Opioid Overdose, Abuse, and Dependence in the United States, 2013,” Medical Care 54, no. 10 (2016): 901-906; White House Council of Economic Advisors, “The Underestimated Cost of the Opioid Crisis,” November 2017, available at <https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/white-house.gov/files/images/The%20Underestimated%20Cost%20of%20the%20Opioid%20Crisis.pdf> (last visited November 20, 2019).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Kertesz, S. G. and Gordon, A. J., “A Crisis of Opioids and the Limits of Prescription Control: United States,” Addiction 114, no. 1 (2019): 169-180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Baker, D. W., “History of the Joint Commission's Pain Standards: Lessons for Today's Prescription Opioid Epidemic,” JAMA 317, no. 11 (2017): 1117-1118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition (2013).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Supra note 2Google Scholar

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, “Results from the 2014 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Detailed Tables,” 2015, available at <https://www.samhsa.gov/data/report/results-2014-national-survey-drug-use-and-health-detailed-tables> (last visited April 8, 2020).+(last+visited+April+8,+2020).>Google Scholar

Case, A. and Deaton, A., “Mortality and Morbidity in the 21st Century,” Brookings Papers on Economic Activity (2017): 397–476.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Paulozzi, L. J., Jones, C. M., Mack, K. A., and Rudd, R. A., “Vital Signs: Overdoses of Prescription Opioid Pain Relievers — United States, 1999-2008,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 60, no. 43 (2011): 1487-1192.Google Scholar

United States Drug Enforcement Agency, “National Heroin Threat Assessment Summary — Updated,” DEA Intelligence Report (2016), available at <https://www.dea.gov/sites/default/files/2018-07/hq062716_attach.pdf> (last visited November 20, 2019).+(last+visited+November+20,+2019).>Google Scholar

Bohnert, A. S. B., Guy, G. P. Jr., and Losby, J. L., “Opioid Prescribing in the United States before and after the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's 2016 Opioid Guideline,” Annals of Internal Medicine 169, no. 6 (2018): 367-375; Dowell, D., Haegerich, T.M., and Chou, R., “CDC Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Chronic Pain — United States, 2016,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 65, no. 1 (March 15, 2016): 1-49, at 23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Supra note 13, page 24.Google Scholar

Kroenke, K., Alford, D. P., Argoff, C., Canlas, B., Covington, E., Frank, J. W., Haake, K. J., et al., “Challenges with Implementing the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Opioid Guideline: A Consensus Panel Report,” Pain Medicine 20, no. 4 (2019): 724-735. Dowell, D., Haegerich, T., and Chou, R., “No Shortcuts to Safer Opioid Prescribing,” New England Journal of Medicine 380, no. 24 (2019): 2285-2287.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Colorado Department of Health Care Policy and Financing, Press Release, Colorado Medicaid to Further Tighten Opioid Policies (October 31, 2018), available at <https://www.colorado.gov/pacific/hcpf/news/colorado-medicaid-further-tighten-opioid-policies> (last visited April 8, 2020).+(last+visited+April+8,+2020).>Google Scholar

National Committee for Quality Assurance, “NCQA Updates Quality Measures for Hedis 2018,” (2017), available at <https://www.ncqa.org/news/ncqa-updates-quality-measures-for-hedis-2018> (last visted April 8, 2020).+(last+visted+April+8,+2020).>Google Scholar

Supra note 5, page 172.Google Scholar

Supra note 13.Google Scholar

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “U.S. Opioid Prescribing Rate Maps,” available at <https://www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/maps/rxrate-maps.html> (last visited April 8, 2020).+(last+visited+April+8,+2020).>Google Scholar

Zhu, W., Chernew, M. E., Sherry, T. B., and Maestas, N., “Initial Opioid Prescriptions among U.S. Commercially Insured Patients, 2012–2017,” New Engand Journal of Medicine 380, no. 11 (2019): 1043-1052.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Guy, G. P. Jr., Zhang, K., Bohm, M. K., Losby, J., Lewis, B., Young, R., Murphy, L. B., and Dowell, D., “Vital Signs: Changes in Opioid Prescribing in the United States, 2006-2015,” MMWR Morbidity Mortality Weekly Report 66, no. 26 (2017): 697-704.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Sun, E. C. and Jena, A. B., “Distribution of Prescription Opioid Use among Privately Insured Adults without Cancer: United States, 2001 to 2013,” Annals of Internal Medicine 167, no. 9 (2017): 684-686.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Szalavitz, M., Editorial, “When the Cure Is Worse Than the Disease,” New York Times, February 9, 2019, available at <https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/09/opinion/sunday/pain-opioids.html> (last visited April 8, 2020); Hawryluk, M., “Opioid Crisis: Pain Patients Pushed to the Brink,” Bend Bulletin, June 2, 2017, available at <https://www.bendbulletin.com/topics/5342867-151/opioid-crisis-pain-patients-pushed-to-the-brink> (last visited April 8, 2020); Moraff, C., “Unintended Consequences: Feds' Pill Crackdown Drives Pain Patients to Heroin,” The Daily Beast, available at <https://www.thedailybeast.com/feds-pill-crackdown-drives-pain-patients-to-heroin> (last visited April 8, 2020). (last visited April 8, 2020).' href=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Szalavitz,+M.,+Editorial,+“When+the+Cure+Is+Worse+Than+the+Disease,”+New+York+Times,+February+9,+2019,+available+at++(last+visited+April+8,+2020);+Hawryluk,+M.,+“Opioid+Crisis:+Pain+Patients+Pushed+to+the+Brink,”+Bend+Bulletin,+June+2,+2017,+available+at++(last+visited+April+8,+2020);+Moraff,+C.,+“Unintended+Consequences:+Feds'+Pill+Crackdown+Drives+Pain+Patients+to+Heroin,”+The+Daily+Beast,+available+at++(last+visited+April+8,+2020).>Google Scholar

Kertesz, S. G. and Gordon, A. J., Editorial, “Strict Limits on Opioid Prescribing Risk the ‘Inhumane Treatment’ of Pain Patients,” STATNews, February 24, 2017, available at <https://www.statnews.com/2017/02/24/opioids-prescribing-limits-pain-patients> (last visited April 8, 2020).+(last+visited+April+8,+2020).>Google Scholar

Kertesz, S. G., Editorial, “As a Physician, I Urge Caution as We Cut Back Opioids,” The Hill, March 28, 2017, available at <https://thehill.com/blogs/pundits-blog/healthcare/326095-as-a-physician-i-urge-other-doctors-to-cut-back-on-prescribing> (last visited April 8, 2020).+(last+visited+April+8,+2020).>Google Scholar

Llorente, E., “As Doctors Taper or End Opioid Prescriptions, Many Patients Driven to Despair, Suicide,” Fox News, December 10, 2018, available at <https://www.foxnews.com/health/as-opioids-become-taboo-doctors-taper-down-or-abandon-pain-patients-driving-many-to-suicide> (last visited April 8, 2020).+(last+visited+April+8,+2020).>Google Scholar

Darnall, B. D., Juurlink, D., Kerns, R. D., Mackey, S., Van Dorsten, B., Humphreys, K., Gonzalez-Sotomayor, J. A., et al., “International Stakeholder Community of Pain Experts and Leaders Call for an Urgent Action on Forced Opioid Tapering,” Pain Medicine Journal 20, no. 3 (2018): 429–433.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Human Rights Watch, “Not Allowed to Be Compassionate” Chronic Pain, the Overdose Crisis, and Unintended Harms in the US (2018), available at <https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/report_pdf/hhr1218_web.pdf> (last visited April 8, 2020).+(last+visited+April+8,+2020).>Google Scholar

Supra note 15.Google Scholar

Dowell, D., Haegerich, T., and Chou, R., “No Shortcuts to Safer Opioid Prescribing,” New England Journal of Medicine 380, no. 24 (June 13, 2019): 2285-2287.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Manhapra, A., Arias, A. J., and Ballantyne, J. C., “The Conundrum of Opioid Tapering in Long-Term Opioid Therapy for Chronic Pain: A Commentary,” Substance Abuse 39, no. 2 (2017): 1-10.Google Scholar

Meske, D.S., Lawal, O. D., Elder, H., Langberg, V., Paillard, F., and Katz, N., “Efficacy of Opioids Versus Placebo in Chronic Pain: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Enriched Enrollment Randomized Withdrawal Trials,” Journal of Pain Research 11 (2018): 923-934.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Busse, J. W., Wang, L., Kamaleldin, M., Craigie, S., Riva, J. J., Montoya, L., Mulla, S. M., et al., “Opioids for Chronic Noncancer Pain: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis,” JAMA 320, no. 23 (2018): 2448-2460.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Krebs, E. E., Gravely, A., Nugent, S., Jensen, A. C., DeRonne, B., Goldsmith, E. S., Kroenke, K., Bair, M. J., and Noorbaloochi, S., “Effect of Opioid Vs Nonopioid Medications on Pain-Related Function in Patients with Chronic Back Pain or Hip or Knee Osteoarthritis Pain: The Space Randomized Clinical Trial,” JAMA 319, no. 9 (2018): 872-882.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cheatle, M.D., Gallagher, R. M., and O'Brien, C. P., “Low Risk of Producing an Opioid Use Disorder in Primary Care by Prescribing Opioids to Prescreened Patients with Chronic Non-cancer Pain,” Pain Medicine 19, no. 4 (2018): 764-773.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Solomon, R. L., “The Opponent-Process Theory of Acquired Motivation: The Costs of Pleasure and the Benefits of Pain,” American Psychologist 35, no. 8 (1980): 691-712.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ballantyne, J. C., Sullivan, M. D., and Kolodny, A., “Opioid Dependence Vs Addiction: A Distinction without a Difference?” Archives of Internal Medicine 172, no. 17 (2012): 1342-1343.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Supra note 32.Google Scholar

Supra note 35.Google Scholar

Skelly, A. C., Chou, R., Dettori, J. R., Turner, J. A., Friedly, J. L., Rundell, S. D., Fu, R., et al., “Noninvasive Nonpharmacological Treatment for Chronic Pain: A Systematic Review,” Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality Publication No. 18-EHC013-EF (2018): ix – x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Chang, D. G. and Kertesz, S. G., “Yoga and Low Back Pain: No Fool's Tool,” Annals of Internal Medicine 167, no. 2 (2017): 129-130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Office of the Inspector General, Opioids in Medicare Part D: Concerns About Extreme Use and Questionable Prescribing, OEI-02-17-00250 (July 2017).Google Scholar

Supra note 17.Google Scholar

Department of Veterans Affairs, Department of Defense, VA/DOD Clinical Practice Guideline: Management of Opioid Therapy for Chronic Pain Version 2.0, (May 2010).Google Scholar

Dunn, K. M., Saunders, K. W., Rutter, C. M., Banta-Green, C. J., Merrill, J. O., Sullivan, M. D., Weisner, C. M., et al., “Opioid Prescriptions for Chronic Pain and Overdose: A Cohort Study,” Annals of Internal Medicine 152, no. 2 (2010): 85-92; Gomes, T., Mamdani, M. M., Dhalla, I. A., Paterson, J. M., and Juurlink, D. N., “Opioid Dose and Drug-Related Mortality in Patients with Nonmalignant Pain,” Archives of Internal Medicine 171, no. 7 (2011): 6866-91; Bohnert, A. S. B., Valenstein, M., Bair, M. J., Ganoczy, D., McCarthy, J. F., Ilgen, M. A., and Blow, F. C., “Association between Opioid Prescribing Patterns and Opioid Overdose-Related Deaths,” JAMA 305, no. 13 (2011): 1315-1321.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Frank, J. W., Lovejoy, T. I., Becker, W. C., Morasco, B. J., Koenig, C. J., Hoffecker, L., Dischinger, H. R., Dobscha, S. K., and Krebs, E. E., “Patient Outcomes in Dose Reduction or Discontinuation of Long-Term Opioid Therapy: A Systematic Review,” Annals of Internal Medicine 167, no. 3 (2017): 181-191.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Mazereeuw, G., Sullivan, M. D., and Juurlink, D. N., “Depression in Chronic Pain: Might Opioids Be Responsible?” PAIN 159, no. 11 (2018): 2142-2145.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Wiese, A. D., Griffin, M. R., Schaffner, W., Stein, C. M., Greevy, R. A., Mitchel, E. F. Jr., and Grijalva, C. G., “Opioid Analgesic Use and Risk for Invasive Pneumococcal Diseases: A Nested Case-Control Study,” Annals of Internal Medicine 168, no. 6 (2018): 396-404.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Supra, note 47.Google Scholar

Bohnert, A. S., Logan, J. E., Ganoczy, D., and Dowell, D., “A Detailed Exploration into the Association of Prescribed Opioid Dosage and Overdose Deaths among Patients with Chronic Pain,” Medical Care 54, no. 5 (2016): 435-441.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Fulton-Kehoe, D., Sullivan, M. D., Turner, J. A., Garg, R. K., Bauer, A. M., Wickizer, T. M., and Franklin, G. M., “Opioid Poisonings in Washington State Medicaid: Trends, Dosing, and Guidelines,” Medical Care 53, no. 8 (2015): 679-685.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Henry, S.G., Wilsey, B. L., Melnikow, J., and Iosif, A.-M., “Dose Escalation During the First Year of Long-Term Opioid Therapy for Chronic Pain,” Pain Medicine 16, no. 4 (2015): 733-744; Zedler, B., Xie, L., Wang, L., Joyce, A., Vick, C., Kariburyo, F., Rajan, P., Baser, O., and Murrelle, L., “Risk Factors for Serious Prescription Opioid-Related Toxicity or Overdose among Veterans Health Administration Patients,” Pain Medicine 15, no. 11 (2014): 1911-1929; Oliva, E. M., Bowe, T., Tavakoli, S., Martins, S., Lewis, E. T., Paik, M., , I. Wiechers, et al., “Development and Applications of the Veterans Health Administration's Stratification Tool for Opioid Risk Mitigation (Storm) to Improve Opioid Safety and Prevent Overdose and Suicide,” Psychological Services 14, no. 1 (2017): 34-49; Glanz, J. M., Narwaney, K. J., Mueller, S. R., Gardner, E. M., Calcaterra, S. L., Xu, S., Breslin, K., and Binswanger, I. A., “Prediction Model for Two-Year Risk of Opioid Overdose among Patients Prescribed Chronic Opioid Therapy,” Journal of General Internal Medicine 33, no. 10 (2018): 1646-1653.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Darke, S., “Heroin Overdose,” Addiction 111 (2016): 2060-2063.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Dowell, D., Noonan, R. K., and Houry, D., “Underlying Factors in Drug Overdose Deaths,” JAMA 318, no. 23 (2017): 2295-2296.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Mark, T.L. and Parish, W., “Opioid Medication Discontinuation and Risk of Adverse Opioid-Related Health Care Events,” Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 103 (2019): 58-63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

James, J. R., Scott, J. M., Klein, J. W., Jackson, S., McKinney, C., Novack, M., Chew, L., and Merrill, J. O., “Mortality after Discontinuation of Primary Care–Based Chronic Opioid Therapy for Pain: A Retrospective Cohort Study,” Journal of General Internal Medicine 34, no. 12 (2019): 2749-2755.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Perez, H.R., Buonora, H. R., M., Cunningham, C. O., Heo, M., and Starrels, J. L., “Opioid Taper Is Associated with Subsequent Termination of Care: A Retrospective Cohort Study,” Journal of General Internal Medicine 35, no. 1 (2020): 36-42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Glanz, J. M., Binswanger, I. A., Shetterly, S. M., Narwaney, K. J., and Xu, S., “Association between Opioid Dose Variability and Opioid Overdose among Adults Prescribed Long-Term Opioid Therapy,” JAMA Network Open 2, no. 4 (2019): e192613.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Fenton, J. J., Agnoli, A. L., Xing, G., Hang, L., Altan, A. E., Tancredi, D. J., Jerant, A., and Magnan, E., “Trends and Rapidity of Dose Tapering among Patients Prescribed Long-Term Opioid Therapy, 2008-2017,” JAMA Network Open 2, no. 11 (2019): e1916271-e71.Google Scholar

Oliva, E. M., Bowe, T., Manhapra, A., Kertesz, S., Hah, J. M., Henderson, P., Robinson, A., et al., “Associations Between Stopping Prescriptions for Opioids, Length of Opioid Treatment, and Overdose or Suicide deaths in US Veterans: Observational Evaluation,” BMJ 368, no. 283 (2020).Google Scholar

Lagisetty, P.A., Healy, N., Garpestad, C., Jannausch, M., Tipirneni, R., and Bohnert, A. S. B., “Access to Primary Care Clinics for Patients with Chronic Pain Receiving Opioids,” JAMA Network Open 2, no. 7 (2019): e196928.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Manhapra, et al., supra note 32.Google Scholar

Weiss, R. D., Potter, J. S., Fiellin, D. A., Byrne, M., Connery, H. S., Dickinson, W., Gardin, J., et al, “Adjunctive Counseling During Brief and Extended Buprenorphine-Naloxone Treatment for Prescription Opioid Dependence: A 2-Phase Randomized Controlled Trial,” Archives of General Psychiatry 68, no. 12 (2011): 1238-1246.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bentham, J. and Mill, J. Stuart, The Utilitarians: An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (Dolphin Book, C 265. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1961).Google Scholar

Kant, I. and Ellington, J. W., Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals (Indianapolis, Ind.: Hackett Pub. Co., 1981).Google Scholar

Tilburt, J. C., “Addressing Dual Agency: Getting Specific About the Expectations of Professionalism,” American Journal of Bio-ethics 14, no. 9 (2014): 29-36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar