Abstract
The features of using radioactive isotopes when creating off-line power supplies are considered. The analysis of the substances used in radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) is carried out. The prospects for manufacturing beta-voltaic generators are justified and they are compared with other electric power sources. The mechanism of β-decay and its place among other types of nuclear transformations is considered. The basic requirements for radiation safety and the used materials of the frame and converter are formulated. Some designs of radioisotope beta-voltaic sources proposed earlier are considered. A list of isotopes that can be used as a power source in a beta-voltaic generator is presented. The methods for obtaining the radioactive materials demonstrating β-decay and their basic properties and natural isotopes are considered. It is concluded that the choice of nickel-63 isotope is preferable for use in beta-voltaic generators due to the optimal combination of its half lifetime, average particle energy, and radiation intensity.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Koutitas, G. and Demestichas, P., A review of energy efficiency in telecommunication networks, Telfor J., 2010, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 2–7. http://journal.telfor.rs/Published/Vol2No1/Vol2No1_A1.pdf.
Bose, B.K., Global energy scenario and impact of power electronics in 21st century, IEEE Trans. Industrial Electron., 2013, vol. 60, no. 7, pp. 2638–2651. doi 10.1109/TIE.2012.2203771
Paradiso, J.A. and Starner, T., Energy scavenging for mobile and wireless electronics, IEEE Pervasive Comput., 2005, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 18–27. doi 10.1109/MPRV.2005.9
Moseley, H.G.J. and Fellow, J.H., The attainment of high potentials by the use of radium, Proc. R. Soc. London A, 1913, vol. 88, no. 605, pp. 471–476. doi 10.1098/rspa.1913.0045
Singh, N., Radioisotopes, Applications in Physical Sciences, Rijeka, Croatia: InTech, 2011. doi 10.5772/858
Huffman, F.N. and Norman, C., Nuclear-fueled cardiac pacemakers, Chest, 1974, vol. 65, no. 6, pp. 667—672. doi 10.1378/chest.65.6.667
Wei, X. and Liu, J., Power sources and electrical recharging strategies for implantable medical devices, Front. Energy Power Eng. China, 2008, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 1–13. doi 10.1007/s11708-008-0016-3
Whalen, S.A., Apblett, C.A., and Aselage, T.L., Improving power density and efficiency of miniature radioisotopic thermoelectric generators, J. Power Sources, 2008, vol. 180, no. 1, pp. 657–663. doi 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2008.01.080
Olsen, L.C., Cabauy, P., and Elkind, B.J., Betavoltaic power sources, Phys. Today, 2012, vol. 65, no. 12, pp. 35–38. doi 10.1063/PT.3.1820
Seaborg, G.T., Table of isotopes, Rev. Mod. Phys, 1944, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 1–32. doi 10.1103/RevMod-Phys.30.585
Baranov, V.Yu., Izotopy: svoistva, poluchenie, primenenie (Isotopes: Properties, Production, Application), Moscow: Fizmatlit, 2005.
Wu, Ts.S. and Moshkovskii, S.A., Beta-raspad (Beta Decay), Moscow: Atomizdat, 1970.
Lewis, V.E., Beta decay of tritium, Nucl. Phys. A, 1970, vol. 151, no. 1, pp. 120–128. doi 10.1016/0375-9474(70)90972-3
Daris, R. and St-Pierre, C., Beta decay of tritium, Nucl. Phys. A, 1969, vol. 138, no. 3, pp. 545–555. doi 10.1016/0375-9474(69)90237-1
Windle, W.F., Microwatt radioisotope energy converters, IEEE Trans. Aerospace, 1964, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 646–651. doi 10.1109/TA.1964.4319649
Rappaport, P. and Linder, E.G., Radioactive charging effects with a dielectric medium, J. Appl. Phys., 1953, vol. 24, no. 9, pp. 1110—1114. doi 10.1063/1.1721457
Müller, S., Shiping, Ch., Daniel, H., Dragoun, O., Dragounovä, N., Hagn, H., Hechtl, E., Hiddemann, K.-H., and Spalek, A., Search for an admixture of a 17 keV neutrino in the ß decay of 35S, Zeitschr. Naturf. A, 1994, vol. 49, no. 9, pp. 874–884. doi 10.1515/zna-1994-0910
Thoennessen, M., Discovery of the isotopes with 11 ≤ Z≤ 19, At. Data Nucl. Data Tables, 2012, vol. 98, no. 5, pp. 933–959. doi 10.1016/j.adt.2011.09.002
Meier, D.E., Garnov, A.Y., Robertson, J.D., Kwon, J.W., and Wacharasindhu, T., Production of 35S for a liquid semiconductor betavoltaic, J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem., 2009, vol. 282, no. 1, pp. 271–274. doi 10.1007/s10967-009-0157-9
R. Bogue, Powering tomorrow's sensor: a review of technologies, Part 1, Sensor Rev., 2010, vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 182–186. doi 10.1108/02602281011051344
Heim, M., Fritsch, A., Schuh, A., Shore, A., et al., Discovery of the krypton isotopes, At. Data Nucl. Data Tables, 2010, vol. 96, no. 4, pp. 333–340. doi 10.1016/j.adt.2010.01.001
Collon, P., Kutschera, W., and Lu, Z.-T., Tracing noble gas radionuclides in the environment, Ann. Rev. Nucl. Part. Sci., 2004, vol. 54, pp. 39–67. doi 10.1146/annurev.nucl.53.041002.110622
Eiting, C.J., Krishnamoorthy, V., Romero, E., and Jones, S., Betavoltaic power cells, in Proceeding of the 42nd Power Sources Conference, 2006, Paper 25.5, pp. 601–605.
Thoennessen, M., Discovery of isotopes with Z≤10, At. Data Nucl. Data Tables, 2012, vol. 98, no. 1, pp. 43–62. doi 10.1016/j.adt.2011.08.002
Lewis, G.N. and Spedding, F.H., A spectroscopic search for H3 in concentrated H2, Phys. Rev., 1933, vol. 43, no. 12, pp. 964–966. doi 10.1103/PhysRev.43.964
Eidinoff, M.L., Upper limit to the tritium content of ordinary water, J. Chem. Phys., 1947, vol. 15, no. 6, p. 416. doi 10.1063/1.1746547
Suhaimi, A., Wölfle, R., Qaim, S.M., Warwick, P., and Stöcklin, G., Measurement of 14N(n,t)12C reaction cross section in the energy range of 5.0 to 10.6MeV, Radiochim. Acta, 1988, vol. 43, no. 3, pp. 133–138. doi 10.1524/ract.1988.43.3.133
Oliver, B.M., Farrar, H. IV, and Bretscher, M.M., Tritium half-life measured by helium-3 growth, Appl. Radiat. Isotopes, 1987, vol. 38, no. 11, pp. 959–965. doi 10.1016/0883-2889(87)90268-1
Myers, E.G., Wagner, A., Kracke, H., and Wesson, B.A., Atomic masses of tritium and helium-3, Phys. Rev. Lett., 2015, vol. 114, no. 1, pp. 013003–1-5. doi 10.1103/PhysRevLett.114.013003
Oliphant, M.L.E., Harteck, P., and Rutherford, O.M., Transmutation effects observed with heavy hydrogen, Proc. R. Soc. London A, 1934, vol. 144, no. 853, pp. 692–703. doi 10.1098/rspa.1934.0077
Morgan, L., and Pasley, J., Tritium breeding control within liquid metal blankets, Fusion Eng. Des., 2013, vol. 88, no. 3, pp. 107–112. doi 10.1016/j.fusengdes. 2012.11.011
Matsuura, H., Nakaya, H., Nakao, Y., Shimakawa, S., Goto, M., Nakagawa, Sh., and Nishikawa, M., Evaluation of tritium production rate in a gas-cooled reactor with continuous tritium recovery system for fusion reactors, Fusion Eng. Des., 2013, vol. 88, nos. 8-9, pp. 2219–2222. doi 10.1016/j.fusengdes.2013.05.022
Engelkemeir, A.G., Hamill, W.H., Inghram, M.G., and Libby, W.F., The half-life of radiocarbon (C14), Phys. Rev., 1949, vol. 75, no. 12, pp. 1825–1833. doi 10.1103/PhysRev.75.1825
Langer, L.M., Motz, J.W., and Price, H.C., Jr., Low energy Beta-Ray spectra: Pm147S35, Phys. Rev., 1950, vol. 77, no. 7, pp. 798–806. doi 10.1103/PhysRev.77.798
Korff, S.A., On the contribution to the ionization at sea-level produced by the neutrons in the cosmic radiation, Terrest. Magn. Atmos. Electr., 1940, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 133–134. doi 10.1029/TE045i002p00133
Hannä, G.C., Primeau, D.B., and Tunnicliffe, P.R., Thermal neutron cross sections and resonance integrals of the reactions O17(n,a)C14, Ar36n,a)S33, and N14(n,p)C14, Canad. J. Phys., 1961, vol. 39, no. 12, pp. 1784–1806. doi 10.1139/p61-201
Konstantinov, E.A., Korablev N.A., Solov'ev E.N., Shamov V.P., Fedorov V.L., and Litvinov A.M., 14C emission from RBMK-1500 reactors and features determining it, Sov. At. Energy, 1989, vol. 66, no. 1, pp. 77–79. doi 10.1007/BF01121081
Choppin, G., Liljenzin, J.-O., Rydberg, J., and Ekberg, C., Radio chemistry and Nuclear Chemistry, 4th ed., Amsterdam, Boston: Elsevier, 2013. doi 10.1016/B978-0-12-405897-2.01001-6
Mannik, L., and Brown, S.K., Laser enrichment of carbon-14, Appl. Phys. B, 1985, vol. 86, no. 2, pp. 79–86. doi 10.1007/BF00692553
Voges, R., Heys, J.R., and Moenius, T., Preparation of Compounds Labeled with Tritium and Carbon-14, New York: Wiley, 2009.
Garofali, K., Robinson, R., and Thoennessen, M., Discovery of chromium, manganese, nickel, and copper isotopes, At. Data Nucl. Data Tables, 2012, vol. 98, no. 2, pp. 356–372. doi 10.1016/j.adt.2011.11.002
Gresits, I., and Tolgyesi, S., Determination of soft X-ray emitting isotopes in radioactive liquid wastes of nuclear power plants, J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem., 2003, vol. 258, no. 1, pp. 107–112. doi 10.1023/A:1026214310645
Holm, E., Rots, P., and Skwarzec, B., Radioanalytical studies of fallout Ni, Int. J. Radiat. Appl. Instrum., Part A, 1992, vol. 43, nos. 1-2, pp. 371–376. doi 10.1016/0883-2889(92)90107-P
Colle, R., Zimmerman, B.E., Cassette, P., and Laureano-Perez, L., 63Ni, its half-life and standardization: revisited, Appl. Radiat. Isotopes, 2008, vol. 66, no. 1, pp. 60–68. doi 10.1016/j.apradiso.2007.07.017
Gaitskell, R.J., Angrave, L.C., Booth, N.E., Hahn, A.D., and Swift, A.M., A measurement of the beta spectrum of 63Ni using a new type of calorimetric cryogenic detector, Phys. Lett. B, 1996, vol. 370, nos. 1-2, pp. 163–166. doi 10.1016/0370-2693(96)00084-6
Angrave, L.C., Booth, N.E., Gaitskell, R.J., and Salmon, G.L., Measurement of the atomic exchange effect in nuclear P decay, Phys. Rev. Lett., 1998, vol. 80, no. 8, pp. 1610–1613. doi 10.110 3/PhysRevLett. 80.1610
Coursey, B.M., Lucas, L.L., Grau Malonda, A., and Garcia-Torano, E., The standardization of plutonium-241 and nickel-63, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. A, 1989, vol. 279, no. 3, pp. 603–610. doi 10.1016/0168-9002(89)91310-7
Le-Bret, C., Loidl, M., Rodrigues, M., Mougeot, X., and Bouchard, J., Study of the influence of the source quality on the determination of the shape factor of beta spectra, J. Low Temp. Phys., 2012, vol. 167, no. 5, pp. 985–990. doi 10.1007/s10909-012-0607-6
Sims, G.H.E. and Juhnke, D.G., The beta self-absorption of Ni63 as metallic nickel, Int. J. Appl. Radiat. Isotopes, 1967, vol. 18, no. 10, pp. 727–728. doi 10.1016/0020-708X(67)90034-8
Gelsema, W.J., Donk, L., Enckevort, J.H.T.F.P., and Blijleven, H.A., The self-absorption of the beta-radiation of 63Ni in metallic nickel sources, J. Chem. Educat., 1969, vol. 46, no. 8, pp. 528–530. doi 10.1021/ed046p528
Barnes, I.L. Garfinkel, S.B., and Mann, W.B., Nickel-63: standardization, half-life and neutron-capture cross-section, Int. J. Appl. Radiat. Isotopes, 1971, vol. 22, no. 12, pp. 777–781. doi 10.1016/0020-708X(71)90143-8
Sosnin, L.J., Suvorov, I.A., Tcheltsov, A.N., and Rogozev, B.I., Production of 63Ni of high specific activity, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. A, 1993, vol. 334, no. 1, pp. 43–44. doi 10.1016/0168-9002(93)90526-N
Numajiri, M., Oki, Y., Suzuki, T., Miura, T., Taira, M., Kanda, Yu., and Kondo, K., Estimation of nickel-63 in steel and copper activated at high-energy accelerator facilities, Appl. Radiat. Isotopes, 1994, vol. 45, no. 4, pp. 509–514. doi 10.1016/0969-8043(94)90116-3
Pustovalov, A.A., Gusev, V.V., Zadde, VV., Petrenko, N.S., Tsvetkov, L.A., and Tikhomirov, A.V., 63Ni-based P-electric current source, At. Energy, 2007, vol. 103, no. 6, pp. 353–356. doi 10.1007/s10512-007-0151-7
Parker, A.M. and Thoennessen, M., Discovery of rubidium, strontium, molybdenum, and rhodium isotopes, At. Data Nucl. Data Tables, 2012, vol. 98, no. 4, pp. 812–831. doi 10.1016/j.adt.2012.06.001
Nystrom, A. and Thoennessen, M., Discovery of yttrium, zirconium, niobium, technetium, and ruthenium isotopes, At. Data Nucl. Data Tables, 2012, vol. 98, no. 2, pp. 95–119. doi 10.1016/j.adt.2011.12.002
Horwitz, E.P., Dietz, M.L., and Fisher, D.E., SREX: A new process for the extraction and recovery of strontium from acidic nuclear waste streams, Solvent Extract. Ion Exchange, 1991, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 1–25. doi 10.1080/07366299108918039
Loferski, J.J. and Rappaport, P., Radiation damage in Ge and Si detected by carrier lifetime changes: damage thresholds, Phys. Rev., 1958, vol. 111, no. 2, pp. 432–439.
Flicker, H., Loferski, J.J., and Elleman, T.S., Construction of a promethium-147 atomic battery, IEEE Trans. Electron Dev., 1964, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 2–8. doi 10.1109/T-ED.1964.15271
Manjunatha, H.C. and Rudraswamy, B., External bremsstrahlung of 90Sr-90Y, 147Pm and 204Tl in detector compounds, Radiat. Phys. Chem., 2013, vol. 85, pp. 95–101. doi 10.1016/j.radphyschem.2012.12.022
May, E. and Thoennessen, M., Discovery of cesium, lanthanum, praseodymium and promethium isotopes, At. Data Nucl. Data Tables, 2012, vol. 98, no. 5, pp. 960–982. doi 10.1016/j.adt.2011.09.005
Reader, J. and Davis, S.P., Promethium 147 hyperfine structure under high resolution, J. Opt. Soc. Am., 1963, vol. 53, no. 4, pp. 431–435. doi 10.1364/JOSA.53.000431
Gorshkov, V.K., Ivanov, R.N., Kukabadze, G.M., and Reformatsky, I.A., 235U Fission product yields in the rare earth region, J. Nucl. Energy, 1958, vol. 8, nos. 1-3, pp. 69–73. doi 10.1016/0891-3919(58)90010-X
Lee, C.-S., Wang, Y.-M., Cheng, W.-L., and Ting, G., Chemical study on the separation and purification of promethium-147, J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem., 1989, vol. 130, no. 1, pp. 21–37. doi 10.1007/BF02037697
Yoshida, M., Sumiya, S., Watanabe, H., and Tobita, K., A rapid separation method for determination of promethium-147 and samarium-151 in environmental samples with high performance liquid chromatography, J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem., 1995, vol. 197, no. 2, pp. 219–227. doi 10.1007/BF02036001
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Original Russian Text © A.S. Bykov, M.D. Malinkovich, I.V. Kubasov, A.M. Kislyuk, D.A. Kiselev, S.V. Ksenich, R.N. Zhukov, A.A. Temirov, M.V. Chichkov, A.A. Polisan, Yu.N. Parkhomenko, 2016, published in Izvestiya Vysshikh Uchebnykh Zavedenii, Materialy Elektronnoi Tekhniki, 2016, Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 221–234.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Bykov, A.S., Malinkovich, M.D., Kubasov, I.V. et al. Application of Radioactive Isotopes for Beta-Voltaic Generators. Russ Microelectron 46, 527–539 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1134/S1063739717080054
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1134/S1063739717080054