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⁴ Editorial, “Recent English Domestic Architecture,” Architectural Review 64 (December 1928): 333–36, at 327.

⁵ Waugh, Evelyn, Decline and Fall (1928; repr., London, 2001), 107–32Google Scholar.

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⁸ John Summerson, unpublished autobiography (hereafter Summerson MS), St. John's College, Oxford, n.d., chap. 11, 22.

⁹ Summerson, John, “Introduction,” in Modern Architecture in Britain, ed. Dannatt, Trevor (London, 1959), 11–28Google Scholar.

¹⁰ On the self-consciously modern character of the 1950s, see Samuel, Raphael, Theatres of Memory (London, 1994), 51–82Google Scholar. However, see also Gold, John, The Practice of Modernism: Modern Architecture and Urban Transformation, 1954–1972 (London, 2007), chaps. 1–2, for a gloomier assessmentGoogle Scholar.

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¹³ Generally, see Jackson, Anthony, The Politics of Architecture: A History of Modern Architecture in Britain (London, 1970)Google Scholar. Specifically, see, e.g., Dean, David, The Thirties: Recalling the English Architectural Scene (London, 1983)Google Scholar; Bullock, Nicholas, Building the Post-war World: Modern Architecture and Reconstruction in Britain (London, 2002)Google Scholar.

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¹⁶ Darling, Elizabeth, Re-forming Britain: Narratives of Modernity before Reconstruction (London, 2007), 4–10Google Scholar; Buckley, Designing Modern Britain, chap. 3. Nonetheless, Darling acknowledges the foreign origins of modernism (Re-forming Britain, 50, 143).

¹⁷ Crook, J. Mordaunt, The Dilemma of Style: Architectural Ideas from the Picturesque to the Post-modern (London, 1987), 238Google Scholar.

¹⁸ Stamp, Gavin, “Introduction,” Britain in the Thirties (AD Profile 24): Architectural Design 49, nos. 10–11 (1979): 2–25, quote at 21Google Scholar.

¹⁹ Curl, James Stevens, “Friendly Bombs,” Building Design 24 (March 2000): 24Google Scholar.

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²³ Paul Nash, “‘Going Modern’ and ‘Being British,’” The Week-end Review 5 (12 March 1932): 322–23, quote at 322.

²⁴ For a particularly good example of this in practice, see Wright, Gwendolyn, “The Ambiguous Modernisms of African Cities,” in The Short Century: Independence and Liberation Movements in Africa, 1945–1994, ed. Enwezor, Okwui (Munich, 2001), 225–33Google Scholar. See also Whyte, William, “Modernism, Modernization, and Europeanization in West Africa, 1944–1984,” in (De)Europeanization and History, ed. Conway, Martin and Patel, Kiran Klaus (Basingstoke, 2010), forthcomingGoogle Scholar.

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²⁷ Buckley, Designing Modern Britain, 10. A rare moment of recognition that the two terms may be different can be found in I. De Wolfe [Hubert de Cronin Hastings], “Townscape,” Architectural Review 106 (December 1949): 355–62, at 361.

²⁸ Powers, Britain, 274.

²⁹ See, e.g., Gropius, Walter, The New Architecture and the Bauhaus, trans. P. Morton Shand (London, 1935)Google Scholar; Corbusier, Le, Vers une Architecture (Paris, 1923)Google Scholar.

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³² See, e.g., [Sven Backström], “The New Empiricism,” Architectural Review 101 (June 1947): 199–201.

³³ Goldhagen, Sarah Williams, “Coda: Reconceptualizing the Modern,” in Anxious Modernisms: Experimentalism in Postwar Architectural Culture, ed. Goldhagen, and Legault, Réjean (Cambridge, MA, 2000), 301–23, quote at 306Google Scholar.

³⁴ Richards, J. M., The Castles on the Ground (London, 1946), 82Google Scholar.

³⁵ Banham, Reyner, “Revenge of the Picturesque: English Architectural Polemics, 1945–1965,” in Concerning Architecture, ed. Summerson, John (London, 1968), 265–74Google Scholar; Mumford, Eric, The CIAM Discourse on Urbanism, 1928–1960 (Cambridge, MA, 2000)Google Scholar; Robbins, David, The Independent Group (London, 1990)Google Scholar.

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³⁷ John Summerson, “My Writing Life,” in Summerson MS, 26.

³⁸ Richards, J. M., An Introduction to Modern Architecture, rev. ed. (Harmondsworth, 1956), 95Google Scholar. See also Lubetkin, Berthold, “Modern Architecture in England” (1937), reprinted in Lubetkin and Tecton: An Architectural Study, ed. Reading, Malcolm and Coe, Peter (London, 1992), 135–81, esp. 136Google Scholar.

³⁹ Hitchcock and Johnson, International Style.

⁴⁰ Williams-Ellis, Clough and Summerson, John, Architecture Here and Now (London, 1934), 35Google Scholar.

⁴¹ Summerson, John, quoted in Martin Pawley, “The Sense of the Modern,” Architects’ Journal 186 (16 and 23 December 1987): 28–30, quote at 28. See also Stamp, “Introduction,” 21Google Scholar.

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⁴³ Benton, Charlotte, A Different World: Émigré Architects in Britain, 1928–1958 (London, 1995)Google Scholar.

⁴⁴ Summerson MS, chap. 6, 19.

⁴⁵ Griggs, H. J. Brock, “Alien Architects Invade Britain,” Architects’ Journal 79 (15 February 1934): 244Google Scholar.

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⁴⁷ Nikolaus Pevsner, “Thoughts on Coventry Cathedral,” Listener 47 (17 January 1952): 94–96; Sidney Taylor, “Letter,” Listener 47 (31 January 1952): 186–87.

⁴⁸ Darcy Braddett, “Letter,” The Times, 18 February 1959, 11.

⁴⁹ Walter E. Cross, “Letter,” The Times, 18 February 1959, 11.

⁵⁰ Mandler, English National Character, chaps. 5–6.

⁵¹ Pevsner, Nikolaus, Some Architectural Writers of the Nineteenth Century (Oxford, 1972), chap. 23Google Scholar; Watkin, David, The Rise of Architectural History (London, 1980), esp. chaps. 1 and 4Google Scholar. However, see also Buchanon, A. C., “Robert Willis and the Rise of Architectural History” (PhD diss., University of London, 1994), for a more functionalist traditionGoogle Scholar.

⁵² William Whyte, “How Do Buildings Mean? Some Issues of Interpretation in the History of Architecture,” History and Theory 45, no. 2 (May 2006): 153–77.

⁵³ Giedion, Sigfried, Space, Time and Architecture: The Growth of a New Tradition, 5th ed. (Cambridge, MA, 1967), 19Google Scholar.

⁵⁴ Richardson, A. E., “The Visual Arts,” in The Character of England, ed. Barker, Ernest (Oxford, 1947), 367–88, quotes at 372 and 379Google Scholar.

⁵⁵ See Halbertsma, Marlite, “Nikolaus Pevsner and the End of a Tradition: The Legacy of Wilhelm Pinder,” Apollo 137 (February 1993): 107–9Google Scholar; Draper, Peter, ed., Reassessing Nikolaus Pevsner (Aldershot, 2004), 29–55Google Scholar.

⁵⁶ Pevsner, Englishness of English Art, 16.

⁵⁷ Reilly, C. H., Some Architectural Problems of To-day (London, 1924), 4–8Google Scholar, gives useful context for this.

⁵⁸ Jenkins, Gilbert H., “Modernism in Architecture,” Architectural Association Journal 43 (November 1927): 155–63Google Scholar, quote at 160. See also the debate on his speech on 166–71 and subsequent correspondence on 227–29, 256–57, 296–97, 297–98, and 298–99.

⁵⁹ Dean, Thirties, 37.

⁶⁰ Lindsay, Lionel, Addled Art (London, 1946), 15Google Scholar.

⁶¹ Fellows, Richard A., Sir Reginald Blomfield: An Edwardian Architect (London, 1985)Google Scholar.

⁶² Reginald Blomfield, “The New Architecture,” Builder 139 (28 November 1930): 911, and “English Architecture in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries,” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 4th ser., 14 (1931): 121–40.

⁶³ See, e.g., Blomfield, “English Architecture,” and “Is Modern Architecture on the Right Track?” Listener 10 (26 July 1933): 123–32.

⁶⁴ Blomfield, Reginald, Modernismus (London, 1934), v, 12–13, 81–82, 169Google Scholar.

⁶⁵ Watkin, David, “Architectural Writing in the Thirties,” Britain in the Thirties (AD Profile 24): Architectural Design 49, nos. 10–11 (1979): 84–95Google Scholar.

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⁶⁷ Editorial, “Modernismus,” Builder 146 (20 April 1934): 667; Reginald Blomfield and A. D. Connell, “For and Against Modern Architecture,” Listener 12 (1934): 885–88. See also Editorial, “Modernismus: A Wireless Discussion,” Builder 148 (1 March 1935): 403–4.

⁶⁸ Although for another—more dismissive—approach, see Yorke, F. R. S. and Penn, Colin, A Key to Modern Architecture (London, 1939), 2Google Scholar.

⁶⁹ Crompton, W. Vernon, “Who Will Deliver Us from the Greeks and Romans?” RIBA Journal, 3rd ser., 41, no. 2 (19 May 1934): 704–5Google Scholar.

⁷⁰ E. M. F. [Maxwell Fry], “Modernismus,” Architects’ Journal 79 (8 March 1934): 368.

⁷¹ McKeller, “Popularism versus Professionalism,” 41.

⁷² [Fry], “Modernismus,” 368.

⁷³ P. Morton Shand, “Stockholm 1930,” Architectural Review 68 (August 1930): 67–72, quote at 71.

⁷⁴ Viscount Burnham, “Civic Spirit,” Architectural Review 69 (March 1931): 77–78, quote at 77.

⁷⁵ Gustav Näsström, quoted in Barbara Miller Lane, National Romanticism and Modern Architecture in Germany and the Scandinavian Countries (Cambridge, 2000), 286.

⁷⁶ Shand, “Stockholm 1930,” 69.

⁷⁷ Powers, Britain, 55–56.

⁷⁸ Goldhagen, “Coda,” 303.

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⁸⁶ See, e.g., Lionel Cuffe, “William Morris,” Architectural Review 69 (1931): 151. Still more influentially, P. Morton Shand's series of articles, “Scenario for a Human Drama,” in the Architectural Review 76 (1934), established much the same pedigree; see (July 1934): 9; (May 1934): 39–42; (September 1934): 83–86; (October 1934): 131–34; (1935): 77; (January 1935): 23–26; and (February 1935): 61–64.

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⁹⁶ Tyack, Geoffrey, Modern Architecture in an Oxford College: St. John's College, 1945–2005 (Oxford, 2005), chap. 2Google Scholar; Colvin, Howard, Essays in English Architectural History (New Haven, CT, 1999), chap. 18Google Scholar.

⁹⁷ Colvin, Howard, A Biographical Dictionary of British Architects, 4th ed. (New Haven, CT, 2008), 99Google Scholar. See also Hall, Michael, “‘Our Own’: Thomas Hope, Beresford Hope, and the Creation of the High Victorian Style,” in The 1840s (Studies in Victorian Architecture and Design), vol. 1, ed. Hill, Rosemary and Hall, Michael (London, 2008), 60–75Google Scholar, quote at 61.

⁹⁸ Schmiechen, James A., “The Victorians, the Historians, and the Idea of Modernism,” American Historical Review 93, no. 2 (April 1988): 287–316CrossRefGoogle Scholar, explores the distorting effects of this more fully. See also Banham, Reyner, Theory and Design in the First Machine Age (1960; repr., London, 1992)Google Scholar.

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¹⁰⁰ Pevsner, Nikolaus, Outline of European Architecture (London, 1948), 197Google Scholar.

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¹⁰² Mills, Edward D., The New Architecture in Great Britain, 1946–1953 (London, 1953), 11Google Scholar, simply states: “It is generally accepted that the beginnings of modern architecture in Europe can be traced to the writings of William Morris.” As late as 1987, Eric Hobsbawm, in his Age of Empire (London, 1987), was still arguing this thesis.

¹⁰³ Stamp, Gavin, “The Origins of the Group,” Architects’ Journal 176 (31 March 1982): 35–38Google Scholar; Nikolaus Pevsner, “Ten Years Victorian Society,” Victorian Society Annual, 1968–69, 4–5.

¹⁰⁴ W. A. Eden, “The English Tradition in the Countryside: 3,” Architectural Review 77 (May 1935): 193–202, quote at 194.

¹⁰⁵ Sharp, Thomas, English Panorama (1936; repr., London, 1950), 142Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁶ Tubbs, Ralph, Living in Cities (Harmondsworth, 1942), 27–30Google Scholar.

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¹¹³ Early examples include Hastings, H., “The English Tradition,” Architectural Review 77 (September 1935): 85–86Google Scholar; and W. A. Eden, “English Tradition in the Countryside,” 85–86, 87–94, 142–52, 193–202.

¹¹⁴ Cornforth, John, The Search for a Style: Country Life and Architecture, 1897–1935 (London, 1988)Google Scholar; Holder, Julian, “‘Design in Every Day Things’: Promoting Modernism in Britain, 1912–1944,” in Modernism in Design, ed. Greenhalgh, Paul (London, 1990), 123–24Google Scholar; Melvin, Jeremy, F. R. S. Yorke and the Evolution of English Modernism (Chichester, 2003), esp. 28–29Google Scholar.

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¹¹⁹ Brookes, Rod, “‘Everything in the Garden Is Lovely’: The Representation of National Identity in Sidney Strube's Daily Express Cartoons in the 1930s,” Oxford Art Journal 13, no. 2 (1990): 31–43CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹²³ Maxwell Fry, “The New Britain Must Be Planned,” Picture Post, 4 January 1941, 16–20.

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¹²⁵ Blomfield, Modernismus, 53, 82, 59.

¹²⁶ Bryant, Arthur, The National Character (London, 1934), 22Google Scholar. See also Shears, W. S., This England: A Book of Shires and Counties (London, 1936), 8Google Scholar. Other good examples of this include the essays by Dawber, Guy, Gordon, Archie, and Bradshaw, H. C. in The Book of the House, ed. Abercrombie, Patrick (London, 1939)Google Scholar.

¹²⁷ Chase, Malcolm, “This Is No Claptrap: This Is Our Heritage,” in The Imagined Past: History and Nostalgia, ed. Shaw, Christopher and Chase, Malcolm (Manchester, 1989), 128–46Google Scholar; Howkins, Alun, “The Discovery of Rural England,” in Englishness: Politics and Culture, ed. Colls, Robert and Dodds, Philip (Beckenham, 1986), 62–88Google Scholar.

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¹²⁹ Bill Schwartz, “Englishness and the Paradox of Modernity,” New Formations 1 (1987): 147–53.

¹³⁰ Stephens, Christopher, “We Are the Masters Now: Modernism and Reconstruction in Post-war Britain,” in Hughes and van Tuyl, Blast to Freeze, 133–38Google Scholar. See also Richards, J. M., Memoirs of an Unjust Fella (London, 1980), 191Google Scholar.

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¹³³ Carter, E. J., “Architectural Reconstruction and War-Time Forms,” in Britain at War, ed. Monroe Wheeler (New York, 1941), 74–79, quote at 74Google Scholar. See also Architectural Review 90 (July 1941), a special issue on Reconstruction.

¹³⁴ Crook, Dilemma of Style, 257.

¹³⁵ Editorial, “Programme,” Architectural Review 93 (April 1943): 86.

¹³⁶ Richards, J. M., Pevsner, Nikolaus, Lancaster, Osbert, and Hastings, H., “The First Half Century,” Architectural Review 101 (January 1947): 26–36, quote at 36Google Scholar.

¹³⁷ [Hastings], “Townscape,” 361.

¹³⁸ Richards, J. M., The Functional Tradition in Early Industrial Buildings (London, 1958), 14–15Google Scholar.

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¹⁴⁰ J. M. Richards, “The Exhibition Buildings,” Architectural Review 109 (1951): 123–38, quote at 123.

¹⁴¹ John Summerson, “South Bank Postscript,” New Statesman and Nation 42 (6 October 1951): 363–64.

¹⁴² Dunnett, Harding McGregor, ed., 1951 Exhibition of Architecture: A Guide to the Exhibition of Architecture, Town-Planning and Building Research (London, 1951), 8Google Scholar.

¹⁴³ Quoted in Bevis Hillier, “Introduction,” in Banham and Hillier, Tonic to the Nation, 10–19, quote at 11.

¹⁴⁴ Misha Black, “Architecture, Art and Design in Unison,” in Banham and Hillier, Tonic to the Na tion, 82–85, quote at 82.

¹⁴⁵ ibid., 82.

¹⁴⁶ Charles Plouviez, “A Minor Mannerism in Art History,” in Banham and Hillier, Tonic to the Na tion, 165–66.

¹⁴⁷ Conekin, Becky, “Here Is the Modern World Itself: The Festival of Britain's Representations of the Future,” in Moments of Modernity: Reconstructing Britain, 1945–1964, ed. Conekin, Becky, Mort, Frank, and Waters, Chris (London, 1999), 228–46, quote at 234Google Scholar.

¹⁴⁸ Gold, Practice of Modernism, 1.

¹⁴⁹ Lancaster, Osbert, Here of All Places (London, 1959), 176Google Scholar.

¹⁵⁰ J. M. Richards, “Lansbury,” Architectural Review 110 (December 1951): 361–67, quote at 361. See also Alan Powers, “‘The Reconditioned Eye’: Architects and Artists in English Modernism,” AA Files 25 (Summer 1993): 54–62, quote at 58.

¹⁵¹ William Feaver, “Festival Star,” in Banham and Hillier, Tonic to the Nation, 40–81. See also Peter Mandler, “New Towns for Old: The Fate of the Town Centre,” in Conekin, Mort, and Waters, Moments of Modernity, 208–27.

¹⁵² See The Country Life Picture Book of the Coronation (London, 1953).

¹⁵³ Campbell, Coventry Cathedral.

¹⁵⁴ Spence, Basil, Phoenix at Coventry (London, 1962), 35Google Scholar.

¹⁵⁵ Editorial, “The MARS Group Exhibition: A Pictorial Record,” Architectural Review 83 (March 1938): 109–116, quote at 116.

¹⁵⁶ Bertram, Design, 24.

¹⁵⁷ Quoted in Benton, Different World, 56.

¹⁵⁸ Curtis, Barry, “One Continuous Interwoven Story: The Festival of Britain,” Block 11 (1985–86): 48–52Google Scholar.

¹⁵⁹ Editorial, “Foreword,” Architectural Review 110 (August 1951): 73–79, quote at 74.

¹⁶⁰ [Hastings], “Townscape,” 360–61.

¹⁶¹ See, e.g., [Anonymous], “Price on Picturesque Planning,” Architectural Review 95 (February 1944): 47–50; Nikolaus Pevsner, “The Genesis of the Picturesque,” Architectural Review 96 (November 1944): 139–46; S. Lang and Nikolaus Pevsner, “Sir William Temple and Sharawaggi,” Architectural Review 106 (December 1949): 391–93.

¹⁶² Pevsner, Englishness of English Art, 179.

¹⁶³ Muthesius, Stefan, The Postwar University: Utopianist Campus and College (New Haven, CT, 2000)Google Scholar.

¹⁶⁴ Nikolaus Pevsner, “Picturesque,” Architectural Review 115 (April 1954): 229.

¹⁶⁵ Banham, “Revenge of the Picturesque.” See also Gold, Practice of Modernism.

¹⁶⁶ As Powers notes in Britain, 93–94.

¹⁶⁷ This is usefully discussed in the essays in Corbett, Holt, and Russell, The Geographies of Englishness.

¹⁶⁸ See esp. Reyner Banham, “The Style: ‘Flimsy … Effeminate’?” in Banham and Hillier, Tonic to the Nation, 90–98, and “FoB + 10,” Design 149 (May 1961): 40–51.

¹⁶⁹ Hewison, Robert, Culture and Consensus: England, Art, and Politic since 1940 (London, 1997), 59Google Scholar.

¹⁷⁰ ibid., 67, 74, 82–87; Hewison, Robert, In Anger: Culture in the Cold War, 1945–60 (London, 1988), chap. 1Google Scholar.

¹⁷¹ Richards, J. M., “Europe Rebuilt: 1946–56; What Has Happened to the Modern Movement?” Architectural Review 121 (1957): 159–76Google Scholar.

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¹⁷⁴ Richards, J. M., “Coventry Cathedral,” Architectural Review 111 (January 1952): 3–7Google Scholar; Editorial, “Foreword,” Architectural Review 113 (January 1953): 3–5, at 5.

¹⁷⁵ Richards, “Lansbury,” 363–67.

¹⁷⁶ See Ute Engel, “The Formation of Pevsner's Art History: Nikolaus Pevsner in Germany, 1902–1935,” in Draper, Reassessing Nikolaus Pevsner, 29–55, for a discussion of these two terms.

¹⁷⁷ Blomfield, Reginald and Connell, A. D., “For and Against Modern Architecture,” Listener 12 (28 November 1934): 885–88, quote at 887Google Scholar.

¹⁷⁸ Bertram, Design, 97.

¹⁷⁹ Tubbs, Living in Cities, 49.

¹⁸⁰ Elwall, Robert, Building a Better Tomorrow (Chichester, 2000), 14–15Google Scholar.

¹⁸¹ Robin, Ron, Enclaves of America: The Rhetoric of American Political Architecture Abroad, 1900–1965 (Princeton, NJ, 1992)Google Scholar. More generally, and polemically, see Saunders, Frances Stonor, Who Paid the Piper? The CIA and the Cultural Cold War (London, 1999)Google Scholar.

¹⁸² Nitzan-Shiftan, Alona, “Contested Zionism-Alternative Modernism: Erich Mendelsohn and the Tel Aviv Chug in Mandate Palestine,” Architectural History 39 (1996): 147–80CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁸³ Pevsner, Nikolaus, “Roehampton: LCC Housing and the Picturesque Tradition,” Architectural Review 126 (July 1959): 21–35, quote at 35Google Scholar. Even as late as 1974, Banham, Reyner was making the same arguments. See his “Park Hill Revisited: English Public Housing That Broke the Rules (but Works Anyway),” Architecture PLUS, May–June 1974, 108–23Google Scholar.

¹⁸⁴ Banham, Reyner, “Park Hill Housing, Sheffield,” Architectural Review 130 (December 1961): 403–10, quote at 410Google Scholar.