Download PDF
Am J Perinatol
DOI: 10.1055/s-0043-1775564
Review Article

A Scoping Review of Preterm Birth Risk Factors

Irene D. Tang 
1   Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, New York
,
Daniel Mallia
2   Department of Computer Science, Hunter College, New York, New York
,
Qi Yan
3   Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York
,
Itsik Pe'er
4   Department of Computer Science, Columbia University, New York, New York
,
Anita Raja
2   Department of Computer Science, Hunter College, New York, New York
,
Ansaf Salleb-Aouissi
4   Department of Computer Science, Columbia University, New York, New York
,
Ronald Wapner
3   Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York
› Author Affiliations Funding Research reported in this study was supported by the National Library Of Medicine of the National Institutes of Health under Award Number: R01LM013327. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health.
› Further Information
    Permissions and Reprints

Abstract

Preterm birth is a major cause of neonatal morbidity and mortality, but its etiology and risk factors are poorly understood. We undertook a scoping review to illustrate the breadth of risk factors for preterm birth that have been reported in the literature. We conducted a search in the PubMed database for articles published in the previous 5 years. We determined eligibility for this scoping review by screening titles and abstracts, followed by full-text review. We extracted odds ratios and other measures of association for each identified risk factor in the articles. A total of 2,509 unique articles were identified from the search, of which 314 were eligible for inclusion in our final analyses. We summarized risk factors and their relative impacts in the following categories: Activity, Psychological, Medical History, Toxicology, Genetics, and Vaginal Microbiome. Many risk factors for preterm birth have been reported. It is challenging to synthesize findings given the multitude of isolated risk factors that have been studied, inconsistent definitions of risk factors and outcomes, and use of different covariates in analyses. Novel methods of analyzing large datasets may promote a more comprehensive understanding of the etiology of preterm birth and ability to predict the outcome.

Key Points

  • Preterm birth is difficult to predict.

  • Preterm birth has many diverse risk factors.

  • Holistic approaches may yield new insights.

Keywords

preterm birth - risk factor - scoping review - genetics - microbiome


Publication History

Received: 06 March 2023

Accepted: 22 August 2023

Article published online:
25 September 2023

© 2023. Thieme. All rights reserved.

Thieme Medical Publishers, Inc.
333 Seventh Avenue, 18th Floor, New York, NY 10001, USA

 

  • References

  • 1 Purisch SE, Gyamfi-Bannerman C. Epidemiology of preterm birth. Semin Perinatol 2017; 41 (07) 387-391
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 2 Manuck TA, Rice MM, Bailit JL. et al; Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units Network. Preterm neonatal morbidity and mortality by gestational age: a contemporary cohort. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2016; 215 (01) 103.e1-103.e14
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 3 Haas DM, Parker CB, Wing DA. et al; NuMoM2b study. A description of the methods of the nulliparous pregnancy outcomes study: monitoring mothers-to-be (nuMoM2b). Am J Obstet Gynecol 2015; 212 (04) 539.e1-539.e24
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 4 Koullali B, Oudijk MA, Nijman TAJ, Mol BWJ, Pajkrt E. Risk assessment and management to prevent preterm birth. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med 2016; 21 (02) 80-88
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 5 Iams JD, Goldenberg RL, Mercer BM. et al; National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units Network. The preterm prediction study: can low-risk women destined for spontaneous preterm birth be identified?. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2001; 184 (04) 652-655
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 6 Huang H, Woodruff TJ, Baer RJ. et al. Investigation of association between environmental and socioeconomic factors and preterm birth in California. Environ Int 2018; 121 (Pt 2): 1066-1078
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 7 Manuck TA. Racial and ethnic differences in preterm birth: a complex, multifactorial problem. Semin Perinatol 2017; 41 (08) 511-518
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 8 Grobman WA, Parker CB, Willinger M. et al; Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Nulliparous Pregnancy Outcomes Study: Monitoring Mothers-to-Be (nuMoM2b) Network*. Racial disparities in adverse pregnancy outcomes and psychosocial stress. Obstet Gynecol 2018; 131 (02) 328-335
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 9 Burris HH, Hacker MR. Birth outcome racial disparities: a result of intersecting social and environmental factors. Semin Perinatol 2017; 41 (06) 360-366
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 10 Staneva A, Bogossian F, Pritchard M, Wittkowski A. The effects of maternal depression, anxiety, and perceived stress during pregnancy on preterm birth: a systematic review. Women Birth 2015; 28 (03) 179-193
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 11 Nesari M, Olson JK, Vandermeer B, Slater L, Olson DM. Does a maternal history of abuse before pregnancy affect pregnancy outcomes? A systematic review with meta-analysis. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 2018; 18 (01) 404
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 12 Baer RJ, Chambers CD, Ryckman KK, Oltman SP, Norton ME, Jelliffe-Pawlowski LL. Risk of preterm birth among women using drugs during pregnancy with elevated α-fetoprotein. J Perinatol 2017; 37 (03) 220-225
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 13 Broe A, Pottegård A, Hallas J, Ahern TP, Lamont RF, Damkier P. Phthalate exposure from drugs during pregnancy and possible risk of preterm birth and small for gestational age. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2019; 240: 293-299
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 14 Metz TD, Borgelt LM. Marijuana use in pregnancy and while breastfeeding. Obstet Gynecol 2018; 132 (05) 1198-1210
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 15 Vuong AM, Shinde MU, Brender JD. et al; National Birth Defects Prevention Study Investigators. Prenatal exposure to nitrosatable drugs, dietary intake of nitrites, and preterm birth. Am J Epidemiol 2016; 183 (07) 634-642
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 16 Saccone G, Perriera L, Berghella V. Prior uterine evacuation of pregnancy as independent risk factor for preterm birth: a systematic review and metaanalysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2016; 214 (05) 572-591
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 17 Smith CJ, Baer RJ, Oltman SP. et al. Maternal dyslipidemia and risk for preterm birth. Luo ZC, ed. PLoS One 2018; 13 (12) e0209579
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 18 Poston L, Caleyachetty R, Cnattingius S. et al. Preconceptional and maternal obesity: epidemiology and health consequences. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2016; 4 (12) 1025-1036
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 19 Lucaroni F, Morciano L, Rizzo G. et al. Biomarkers for predicting spontaneous preterm birth: an umbrella systematic review. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2018; 31 (06) 726-734
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 20 Symington EA, Baumgartner J, Malan L. et al. Maternal iron-deficiency is associated with premature birth and higher birth weight despite routine antenatal iron supplementation in an urban South African setting: the NuPED prospective study. Shekhawat PS, ed. PLoS One 2019; 14 (09) e0221299
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 21 Chu DM, Seferovic M, Pace RM, Aagaard KM. The microbiome in preterm birth. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol 2018; 52: 103-113
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 22 Fettweis JM, Serrano MG, Brooks JP. et al. The vaginal microbiome and preterm birth. Nat Med 2019; 25 (06) 1012-1021
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 23 Davey MA, Watson L, Rayner JA, Rowlands S. Risk-scoring systems for predicting preterm birth with the aim of reducing associated adverse outcomes. Cochrane Pregnancy and Childbirth Group, ed. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2015; 2015 (10) CD004902
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 24 Ananth CV, Vintzileos AM. Epidemiology of preterm birth and its clinical subtypes. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2006; 19 (12) 773-782
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 25 Lockwood CJ, Kuczynski E. Risk stratification and pathological mechanisms in preterm delivery. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 2001; 15 (Suppl. 02) 78-89
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 26 Zhang G, Srivastava A, Bacelis J, Juodakis J, Jacobsson B, Muglia LJ. Genetic studies of gestational duration and preterm birth. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol 2018; 52: 33-47
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 27 Arksey H, O'Malley L. Scoping studies: towards a methodological framework. Int J Soc Res Methodol 2005; 8 (01) 19-32
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 28 Althabe F, Howson CP, Kinney M, Lawn J. World Health Organization. Born too soon: the global action report on preterm birth; 2012. Accessed January 10, 2021 at: http://www.who.int/pmnch/media/news/2012/201204%5Fborntoosoon-report.pdf
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 29 Kibret KT, Chojenta C, Gresham E, Tegegne TK, Loxton D. Maternal dietary patterns and risk of adverse pregnancy (hypertensive disorders of pregnancy and gestational diabetes mellitus) and birth (preterm birth and low birth weight) outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Public Health Nutr 2018; 22 (03) 1-15
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 30 Wen J, Xun P, Chen C. et al. Non-occupational physical activity during pregnancy and the risk of preterm birth: a meta-analysis of observational and interventional studies. Sci Rep 2017; 7 (01) 44842
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 31 Straughen JK, Sealy-Jefferson S, Bazydlo M, Helmkamp L, Misra DP. Physical activity and risk of preterm birth in a cohort of African American women. Womens Health Issues 2018; 28 (06) 488-494
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 32 Aune D, Schlesinger S, Henriksen T, Saugstad OD, Tonstad S. Physical activity and the risk of preterm birth: a systematic review and meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. BJOG 2017; 124 (12) 1816-1826
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 33 Catov JM, Parker CB, Gibbs BB. et al; NICHD NuMoM2b and NHLBI NuMoM2b Heart Health Study Network. Patterns of leisure-time physical activity across pregnancy and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act 2018; 15 (01) 68
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 34 Beetham KS, Giles C, Noetel M, Clifton V, Jones JC, Naughton G. The effects of vigorous intensity exercise in the third trimester of pregnancy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 2019; 19 (01) 281
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 35 Felder JN, Baer RJ, Rand L, Jelliffe-Pawlowski LL, Prather AA. Sleep disorder diagnosis during pregnancy and risk of preterm birth. Obstet Gynecol 2017; 130 (03) 573-581
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 36 Wang L, Jin F. Association between maternal sleep duration and quality, and the risk of preterm birth: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 2020; 20 (01) 125
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 37 Brown NT, Turner JM, Kumar S. The intrapartum and perinatal risks of sleep-disordered breathing in pregnancy: a systematic review and metaanalysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2018; 219 (02) 147-161.e1
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Zhang G, Feenstra B, Bacelis J. et al. Genetic associations with gestational duration and spontaneous preterm birth. N Engl J Med 2017; 377 (12) 1156-1167
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 39 Hong X, Hao K, Ji H. et al. Genome-wide approach identifies a novel gene-maternal pre-pregnancy BMI interaction on preterm birth. Nat Commun 2017; 8 (01) 15608
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 40 Ijabi J, Moradi-Sardareh H, Afrisham R, Seifi F, Ijabi R. SKA2 gene - A novel biomarker for latent anxiety and preterm birth prediction. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2019; 237: 106-112
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 41 Anderson SM, Naidoo RN, Ramkaran P, Asharam K, Muttoo S, Chuturgoon AA. OGG1 Ser326Cys polymorphism, HIV, obesity and air pollution exposure influences adverse birth outcome susceptibility, within South African Women. Reprod Toxicol 2018; 79: 8-15
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 42 Liassides C, Papadopoulos A, Siristatidis C. et al. Single nucleotide polymorphisms of Toll-like receptor-4 and of autophagy-related gene 16 like-1 gene for predisposition of premature delivery: a prospective study. Medicine (Baltimore) 2019; 98 (40) e17313
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 43 Lyubomirskaya ES, Kamyshnyi AM, Krut YY. et al. SNPs and transcriptional activity of genes of innate and adaptive immunity at the maternal-fetal interface in woman with preterm labour, associated with preterm premature rupture of membranes. Wiad Lek 2020; 73 (01) 25-30
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 44 Belousova VS, Svitich OA, Timokhina EV, Strizhakov AN, Bogomazova IM. Polymorphism of the IL-1β, TNF, IL-1RA and IL-4 cytokine genes significantly increases the risk of preterm birth. Biochemistry (Mosc) 2019; 84 (09) 1040-1046
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 45 Dominguez-Lopez P, Diaz-Cueto L, Arechavaleta-Velasco M, Caldiño-Soto F, Ulloa-Aguirre A, Arechavaleta-Velasco F. The follicle-stimulating hormone receptor Asn680Ser polymorphism is associated with preterm birth in Hispanic women. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2018; 31 (05) 580-585
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 46 Dutra LV, Affonso-Kaufman FA, Cafeo FR. et al. Association between vitamin D plasma concentrations and VDR gene variants and the risk of premature birth. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 2019; 20 (01) 3
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 47 Langmia IM, Apalasamy YD, Omar SZ, Mohamed Z. Progesterone receptor (PGR) gene polymorphism is associated with susceptibility to preterm birth. BMC Med Genet 2015; 16 (01) 63
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 48 Langmia IM, Apalasamy YD, Omar SZ, Mohamed Z. Interleukin 1 receptor type 2 gene polymorphism is associated with reduced risk of preterm birth. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2016; 29 (20) 3347-3350
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 49 Langmia IM, Apalasamy YD, Suki SZ, Omar SZ, Mohamed Z. Genetic association of AKAP10 gene polymorphism with reduced risk of preterm birth. J Perinatol 2015; 35 (09) 700-704
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 50 Barišić A, Kolak M, Peterlin A. et al. DNMT3B rs1569686 and rs2424913 gene polymorphisms are associated with positive family history of preterm birth and smoking status. Croat Med J 2020; 61 (01) 8-17
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 51 Frey HA, Stout MJ, Pearson LN. et al. Genetic variation associated with preterm birth in African-American women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2016; 215 (02) 235.e1-235.e8
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 52 Liu GJ, He JR, Kuang YS. et al. Associations of maternal PLA2G4C and PLA2G4D polymorphisms with the risk of spontaneous preterm birth in a Chinese population. Mol Med Rep 2017; 15 (06) 3607-3614
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 53 Salem H, Yatchenko Y, Anosov M. et al. Maternal and neonatal irisin precursor gene FNDC5 polymorphism is associated with preterm birth. Gene 2018; 649: 58-62
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 54 Han SH, Lee NR, Kim HJ. et al. Association between the IL-6, IL-10, and TNFα gene polymorphisms and preterm-birth in Korean women. Genes Genomics 2020; 42 (07) 743-750
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 55 Kovač U, Jasper EA, Smith CJ. et al. The association of polymorphisms in circadian clock and lipid metabolism genes with 2nd trimester lipid levels and preterm birth. Front Genet 2019; 10: 540
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 56 Pandey M, Awasthi S, Singh U, Mahdi AA. Association of IL-10 gene polymorphism (-819C > T, -592C > A and -1082G > A) with preterm birth. Indian J Pediatr 2018; 85 (02) 93-101
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 57 Anderson C, Smitherman AB, Engel SM, Nichols HB. Modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors for preterm delivery among adolescent and young adult cancer survivors. Cancer Causes Control 2018; 29 (02) 289-295
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 58 Hartnett KP, Mertens AC, Kramer MR. et al. Pregnancy after cancer: does timing of conception affect infant health?. Cancer 2018; 124 (22) 4401-4407
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 59 Hartnett KP, Ward KC, Kramer MR. et al. The risk of preterm birth and growth restriction in pregnancy after cancer. Int J Cancer 2017; 141 (11) 2187-2196
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 60 Parent B, Martopullo I, Weiss NS, Khandelwal S, Fay EE, Rowhani-Rahbar A. Bariatric surgery in women of childbearing age, timing between an operation and birth, and associated perinatal complications. JAMA Surg 2017; 152 (02) 128-135
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 61 Miller ES, Sakowicz A, Grobman WA. The association between cervical dysplasia, a short cervix, and preterm birth. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2015; 213 (04) 543.e1-543.e4
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 62 Soneji S, Beltrán-Sánchez H. Association of maternal cigarette smoking and smoking cessation with preterm birth. JAMA Netw Open 2019; 2 (04) e192514
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 63 Tucker CM, Berrien K, Menard MK. et al. Predicting preterm birth among women screened by North Carolina's Pregnancy Medical Home Program. Matern Child Health J 2015; 19 (11) 2438-2452
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 64 Chen PH, Rovi S, Vega ML, Barrett T, Pan KY, Johnson MS. Birth outcomes in relation to intimate partner violence. J Natl Med Assoc 2017; 109 (04) 238-245
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 65 Ncube CN, Enquobahrie DA, Gavin AR. Racial differences in the association between maternal antenatal depression and preterm birth risk: a prospective cohort study. J Womens Health (Larchmt) 2017; 26 (12) 1312-1318
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 66 Venkatesh KK, Ferguson KK, Smith NA, Cantonwine DE, McElrath TF. Association of antenatal depression with clinical subtypes of preterm birth. Am J Perinatol 2019; 36 (06) 567-573
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 67 Slaughter-Acey JC, Sealy-Jefferson S, Helmkamp L. et al. Racism in the form of micro aggressions and the risk of preterm birth among black women. Ann Epidemiol 2016; 26 (01) 7-13.e1
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 68 Männistö T, Mendola P, Kiely M. et al. Maternal psychiatric disorders and risk of preterm birth. Ann Epidemiol 2016; 26 (01) 14-20
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 69 Pare-Miron V, Czuzoj-Shulman N, Oddy L, Spence AR, Abenhaim HA. Effect of borderline personality disorder on obstetrical and neonatal outcomes. Womens Health Issues 2016; 26 (02) 190-195
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 70 Abdelaal H, Mohamed MA, Aly H. Racial disparity, depression, and birth outcomes among pregnant teens. Matern Child Health J 2018; 22 (10) 1400-1406
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 71 Nkansah-Amankra S. Pre-pregnancy maternal depressive symptoms and low birth weight and preterm birth outcomes: assessment of adolescent background characteristics and birth outcomes in adulthood. Midwifery 2018; 58: 120-129
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 72 Heun-Johnson H, Seabury SA, Menchine M, Claudius I, Axeen S, Lakshmanan A. Association between maternal serious mental illness and adverse birth outcomes. J Perinatol 2019; 39 (05) 737-745
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 73 Salow AD, Pool LR, Grobman WA, Kershaw KN. Associations of neighborhood-level racial residential segregation with adverse pregnancy outcomes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2018; 218 (03) 351.e1-351.e7
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 74 Giurgescu C, Fahmy L, Slaughter-Acey J, Nowak A, Caldwell C, Misra DP. Can support from the father of the baby buffer the adverse effects of depressive symptoms on risk of preterm birth in Black families?. AIMS Public Health 2018; 5 (01) 89-98
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 75 Weis KL, Walker KC, Chan W, Yuan TT, Lederman RP. Risk of preterm birth and newborn low birthweight in military women with increased pregnancy-specific anxiety. Mil Med 2020; 185 (5-6): e678-e685
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 76 Bower KM, Geller RJ, Perrin NA, Alhusen J. Experiences of racism and preterm birth: findings from a pregnancy risk assessment monitoring system, 2004 through 2012. Womens Health Issues 2018; 28 (06) 495-501
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 77 Tsai HJ, Surkan PJ, Yu SM. et al. Differential effects of stress and African ancestry on preterm birth and related traits among US born and immigrant Black mothers. Medicine (Baltimore) 2017; 96 (05) e5899
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 78 Bhatia N, Chao SM, Higgins C, Patel S, Crespi CM. Association of mothers' perception of neighborhood quality and maternal resilience with risk of preterm birth. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2015; 12 (08) 9427-9443
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 79 Szegda K, Bertone-Johnson ER, Pekow P. et al. Prenatal perceived stress and adverse birth outcomes among Puerto Rican women. J Womens Health (Larchmt) 2018; 27 (05) 699-708
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 80 Lee H, Okunev I, Tranby E, Monopoli M. Different levels of associations between medical co-morbidities and preterm birth outcomes among racial/ethnic women enrolled in Medicaid 2014-2015: retrospective analysis. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 2020; 20 (01) 33
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 81 Mehta-Lee SS, Palma A, Bernstein PS, Lounsbury D, Schlecht NF. A preconception nomogram to predict preterm delivery. Matern Child Health J 2017; 21 (01) 118-127
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 82 Soneji S, Beltrán-Sánchez H. Association of special supplemental nutrition program for women, infants, and children with preterm birth and infant mortality. JAMA Netw Open 2019; 2 (12) e1916722
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 83 Tong VT, England LJ, Rockhill KM, D'Angelo DV. Risks of preterm delivery and small for gestational age infants: effects of nondaily and low-intensity daily smoking during pregnancy. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 2017; 31 (02) 144-148
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 84 Kondracki AJ, Hofferth SL. A gestational vulnerability window for smoking exposure and the increased risk of preterm birth: how timing and intensity of maternal smoking matter. Reprod Health 2019; 16 (01) 43
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 85 Moore E, Blatt K, Chen A, Van Hook J, DeFranco EA. Relationship of trimester-specific smoking patterns and risk of preterm birth. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2016; 215 (01) 109.e1-109.e6
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 86 Wang X, Lee NL, Burstyn I. Smoking and use of electronic cigarettes (vaping) in relation to preterm birth and small-for-gestational-age in a 2016 U.S. national sample. Prev Med 2020; 134: 106041
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 87 Baer RJ, Chambers CD, Ryckman KK, Oltman SP, Rand L, Jelliffe-Pawlowski LL. Risk of preterm and early term birth by maternal drug use. J Perinatol 2019; 39 (02) 286-294
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 88 Garrison-Desany HM, Nawa N, Kim Y. et al. Polydrug use during pregnancy and preterm birth in a low-income, multiethnic birth cohort, Boston, 1998–2018. Public Health Rep 2020; 135 (03) 383-392
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 89 Baer RJ, McLemore MR, Adler N. et al. Pre-pregnancy or first-trimester risk scoring to identify women at high risk of preterm birth. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2018; 231: 235-240
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 90 Ravel J, Gajer P, Abdo Z. et al. Vaginal microbiome of reproductive-age women. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2011; 108 (Suppl. 01) 4680-4687
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 91 DiGiulio DB, Callahan BJ, McMurdie PJ. et al. Temporal and spatial variation of the human microbiota during pregnancy. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2015; 112 (35) 11060-11065
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 92 Hyman RW, Fukushima M, Diamond L, Kumm J, Giudice LC, Davis RW. Microbes on the human vaginal epithelium. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2005; 102 (22) 7952-7957
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 93 Callahan BJ, DiGiulio DB, Goltsman DSA. et al. Replication and refinement of a vaginal microbial signature of preterm birth in two racially distinct cohorts of US women. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114 (37) 9966-9971
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 94 Stout MJ, Zhou Y, Wylie KM, Tarr PI, Macones GA, Tuuli MG. Early pregnancy vaginal microbiome trends and preterm birth. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2017; 217 (03) 356.e1-356.e18
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 95 Haque MM, Merchant M, Kumar PN, Dutta A, Mande SS. First-trimester vaginal microbiome diversity: a potential indicator of preterm delivery risk. Sci Rep 2017; 7 (01) 16145
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 96 Kosti I, Lyalina S, Pollard KS, Butte AJ, Sirota M. Meta-analysis of vaginal microbiome data provides new insights into preterm birth. Front Microbiol 2020; 11: 476
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 97 Baugh N, Harris DE, Aboueissa AM, Sarton C, Lichter E. The impact of maternal obesity and excessive gestational weight gain on maternal and infant outcomes in Maine: analysis of pregnancy risk assessment monitoring system results from 2000 to 2010. J Pregnancy 2016; 2016: 5871313
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 98 Kim S, Im EO, Liu J, Ulrich C. Maternal age patterns of preterm birth: exploring the moderating roles of chronic stress and race/ethnicity. Ann Behav Med 2020; 54 (09) 653-664
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 99 Nutor JJ, Slaughter-Acey JC, Giurgescu C, Misra DP. Symptoms of depression and preterm birth among black women. MCN Am J Matern Child Nurs 2018; 43 (05) 252-258
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 100 Engelhardt KA, Hisle-Gorman E, Gorman GH, Dobson NR. Lower preterm birth rates but persistent racial disparities in an open-access health care system. Mil Med 2018; 183 (9-10): e570-e575
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 101 Thoma ME, Drew LB, Hirai AH, Kim TY, Fenelon A, Shenassa ED. Black-white disparities in preterm birth: geographic, social, and health determinants. Am J Prev Med 2019; 57 (05) 675-686
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar