Assessing Language Skills in Bilingual Children: Current Trends in Research and Practice

 

 Permissions and Reprints

Abstract

A continuously challenging issue in the field of speech–language pathology is accurately identifying and diagnosing a language disorder in school-aged (pre-kindergarten through 5th grade) bilingual children, as bilingual children are disproportionately under- and overidentified with a language disorder. The current review focuses on the assessment of bilingual children in pre-kindergarten through fifth grade, aimed to inform teachers, pediatricians, parents, and other relevant professionals of issues surrounding assessment of these dual-language learners. We examine the barriers to assessing bilingual children for language disorders, such as the lack of availability of bilingual tests, underinformative current best practice guidelines, lack of speech–language pathologist (SLP) training/knowledge of bilingualism, and use of interpreters. We discuss the necessary considerations when SLPs use norm-referenced tests with bilingual children, such as norming samples, accurate identification of a language disorder, reliability and validity, test administration, and potential solutions to using otherwise poorly suited norm-referenced tests. We also consider research on several alternative measures to norm-referenced assessments, including dynamic assessment, nonword repetition, language sampling, nonlinguistic cognition, and parent report. We conclude by synthesizing the information in this review to offer six principles of best practices for bilingual assessment.

Publication History

Received: 26 December 2021

Accepted: 05 January 2022

Article published online:
07 July 2022

© 2022. The Author(s). This is an open access article published by Thieme under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, permitting unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction so long as the original work is properly cited. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

Georg Thieme Verlag KG
Rüdigerstraße 14, 70469 Stuttgart, Germany

• References

• 1 Kohnert K. Bilingual children with primary language impairment: issues, evidence and implications for clinical actions. J Commun Disord 2010; 43 (06) 456-473
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 2 Kay-Raining Bird E, Genesee F, Verhoeven L. Bilingualism in children with developmental disorders: a narrative review. J Commun Disord 2016; 63: 1-14
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 3 Castilla-Earls A, Bedore L, Rojas R. et al. Beyond scores: using converging evidence to determine speech and language services eligibility for dual language learners. Am J Speech Lang Pathol 2020; 29 (03) 1116-1132
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 4 De Lamo White C, Jin L. Evaluation of speech and language assessment approaches with bilingual children. Int J Lang Commun Disord 2011; 46 (06) 613-627
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 5 Ebert KD, Kohnert K. Language learning impairment in sequential bilingual children. Lang Teach 2016; 49 (03) 301-338
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 6 Bedore LM, Peña ED. Assessment of bilingual children for identification of language impairment: current findings and implications for practice. Int J Biling Educ Biling 2008; 11 (01) 1-29
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 7 Barragan B, Castilla-Earls A, Martinez-Nieto L, Restrepo MA, Gray S. Performance of low-income dual language learners attending English-only schools on the clinical evaluation of language fundamentals-Fourth Edition, Spanish. Lang Speech Hear Serv Sch 2018; 49 (02) 292-305
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 8 Lugo-Neris MJ, Peña ED, Bedore LM, Gillam RB. Utility of a language screening measure for predicting risk for language impairment in bilinguals. Am J Speech Lang Pathol 2015; 24 (03) 426-437
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 9 Yamasaki BL, Luk G. Eligibility for special education in elementary school: the role of diverse language experiences. Lang Speech Hear Serv Sch 2018; 49 (04) 889-901
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 10 Caesar LG, Kohler PD. The state of school-based bilingual assessment: actual practice versus recommended guidelines. Lang Speech Hear Serv Sch 2007; 38 (03) 190-200
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 11 Langdon HW, Cheng L-RL. Collaborating with Interpreters and Translators: A Guide for Communication Disorders Professionals. Thinking Publications; 2002. Eau Claire, WI
  Google Scholar
• 12 Langdon HW, Saenz TI. Working with interpreters to support students who are English language learners. Perspect ASHA Spec Interest Groups 2016; 1 (16) 15-27
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 13 Boerma T, Blom E. Assessment of bilingual children: what if testing both languages is not possible?. J Commun Disord 2017; 66: 65-76
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 14 Jackson-Maldonado D. Early language assessment for Spanish- speaking children. Bilingual Rev 1999; 24: 35-53
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 15 Peña E, Iglesias A, Lidz CS. Reducing test bias through dynamic assessment of children's word learning ability. Am J Speech Lang Pathol 2001; 10 (02) 138-154
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 16 Scheidnes M, Tuller L. Using clausal embedding to identify language impairment in sequential bilinguals. Biling Lang Cogn 2019; 22 (05) 949-967
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 17 Horton-Ikard R, Ellis Weismer S. A preliminary examination of vocabulary and word learning in African American toddlers from middle and low socioeconomic status homes. Am J Speech Lang Pathol 2007; 16 (04) 381-392
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 18 Kapantzoglou M, Restrepo MA, Thompson MS. Dynamic assessment of word learning skills: identifying language impairment in bilingual children. Lang Speech Hear Serv Sch 2012; 43 (01) 81-96
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 19 Restrepo MA, Silverman SW. Validity of the Spanish Preschool Language Scale-3 for use with bilingual children. Am J Speech Lang Pathol 2001; 10 (04) 382-393
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 20 Saenz TI, Huer MB. Testing strategies involving least biased language assessment of bilingual children. Comm Disord Q 2003; 24 (04) 184-193
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 21 Petersen DB, Tonn P, Spencer TD, Foster ME. The classification accuracy of a dynamic assessment of inferential word learning for bilingual English/Spanish-speaking school-age children. Lang Speech Hear Serv Sch 2020; 51 (01) 144-164
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 22 Miller J, Iglesias A, Nockerts A. Systematic Analysis of Language Transcripts. SALT Software; 2008
  Google Scholar
• 23 Dollaghan CA, Horner EA. Bilingual language assessment: a meta-analysis of diagnostic accuracy. J Speech Lang Hear Res 2011; 54 (04) 1077-1088
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 24 Preferred Practice Patterns for the Profession of Speech-Language Pathology. American Speech-Language-Hearing Association; 2004 :PP2004–00191 DOI: 10.1044/policy.PP2004-00191
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 25 U.S. Department of Education. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), 20 U.S.C. § 300.304. 2004. Accessed June 3, 2020 at: https://sites.ed.gov/idea/regs/b/d/300.304/c
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 26 American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. Bilingual Service Delivery (Practice Portal). Accessed June 3, 2020 at: www.asha.org/Practice-Portal/Professional-Issues/Bilingual-Service-Delivery
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 27 Thordardottir E, Rothenberg A, Rivard M-E, Naves R. Bilingual assessment: can overall proficiency be estimated from separate measurement of two languages?. J Multilingual Commun Disord 2006; 4 (01) 1-21
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 28 Arias G, Friberg J. Bilingual language assessment: contemporary versus recommended practice in American schools. Lang Speech Hear Serv Sch 2017; 48 (01) 1-15
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 29 Brice AE. The Hispanic Child: Speech, Language, Culture, and Education. Allyn and Bacon; 2002
  Google Scholar
• 30 Caesar LG. Factors Affecting School-Based Speech-Language Pathologists' Use of Language Assessment Practices with Bilingual Children. Published online 2004
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 31 Kritikos EP. Speech-language pathologists' beliefs about language assessment of bilingual/bicultural individuals. Am J Speech Lang Pathol 2003; 12 (01) 73-91
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 32 American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. Demographic Profile of ASHA Members Providing Bilingual Services, Year-End 2019. Published online 2020. Accessed June 5, 2020 at: https://www.asha.org/uploadedFiles/Demographic-Profile-Bilingual-Spanish-Service-Members.pdf
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 33 United States Census Bureau. New census bureau report analyzes nation' s linguistic diversity. Published 2010. Accessed June 5, 2020 at: http://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/american_community_survey_acs/cb10-cn58.html
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 34 Armon-Lotem S. Introduction: bilingual children with SLI – the nature of the problem. Biling Lang Cogn 2012; 15 (01) 1-4
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 35 Pearson BZ, Fernández SC, Oller DK. Lexical development in bilingual infants and toddlers: comparison to monolingual norms. Lang Learn 1993; 43 (01) 93-120
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 36 Langdon HW, Saenz TI. Working with Interpreters and Translators: A Guide for Speech-Language Pathologists and Audiologists; 2016. Accessed June 24, 2021 at: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&scope=site&db=nlebk&db=nlabk&AN=1283860
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 37 Lopez EC, Rooney M. A preliminary investigation of the roles and backgrounds of school interpreters: implications for training and recruiting. J Soc Distress Homeless 1997; 6 (02) 161-174
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 38 Ebert KD, Pham G. Synthesizing information from language samples and standardized tests in school-age bilingual assessment. Lang Speech Hear Serv Sch 2017; 48 (01) 42-55
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 39 Teoh WQ, Brebner C, McAllister S. Bilingual assessment practices: challenges faced by speech-language pathologists working with a predominantly bilingual population. Speech Lang Hear 2018; 21 (01) 10-21
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 40 Anaya JB, Peña ED, Bedore LM. Where Spanish and English come together: a two dimensional bilingual approach to clinical decision making. Perspect ASHA Spec Interest Groups 2016; 1 (14) 3-16
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 41 Peña ED, Bedore LM. Assessing Perception and Comprehension in Bilingual Children, Without and With Speech and Language Impairment. In: The Listening Bilingual. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.; 2018: 220-243
  Google Scholar
• 42 Peña ED, Gutiérrez-Clellen VF, Iglesias A, Goldstein BA, Bedore LM. Bilingual English-Spanish Assessment (BESA) Manual. Brookes Publishing; 2018
  Google Scholar
• 43 Ortiz SO. Ortiz Picture Vocabulary Acquisition TestTM. Published online 2018. Accessed June 22, 2020 at: https://storefront.mhs.com/collections/ortiz-pvat
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 44 Martin NA. Receptive one-word picture vocabulary test-4 ROWPVT-4:SBE: Spanish-bilingual editionRecept-4 . Published online 2013.
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 45 Martin NA. Expressive one-word picture vocabulary test - 4: EOWPVT-4:SBE: Spanish-bilingual edition. EOWPVT-4SBE. Published online 2013
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 46 ZImmerman IL, Steiner VG, Pond RE. Preschool Language Scales, Spanish (PLS-5 Spanish). Pearson; 2012
  Google Scholar
• 47 Golinkoff RM, De Villiers JG, Hirsh-Pasek K. et al. User's Manual for the Quick Interactive Language Screener (QUILS): A Measure of Vocabulary, Syntax, and Language Acquisition Skills in Young Children. Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co; 2017
  Google Scholar
• 48 Peña ED, Bedore LM, Iglesias A, Gutiérrez-Clellen VF, Goldstein BA. Bilingual English Spanish Oral Screener–Experimental Version (BESOS). 2008
  Google Scholar
• 49 Marian V. An Introduction to Bilingualism: Principles and Processes. Routledge; 2018. DOI: 10.4324/9781315101682
  CrossrefGoogle Scholar
• 50 Marian V, Blumenfeld HK, Kaushanskaya M. The Language Experience and Proficiency Questionnaire (LEAP-Q): assessing language profiles in bilinguals and multilinguals. J Speech Lang Hear Res 2007; 50 (04) 940-967
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 51 Sánchez L. Bilingualism/second-language research and the assessment of oral proficiency in minority bilingual children. Lang Assess Q 2006; 3 (02) 117-149
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 52 Arias G. Bilingual Language Assessment: Contemporary Practice Versus Recommended Practice. 2014; Illinois State University [Dissertation paper] DOI: 10.30707/ETD2014.Arias.G
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 53 Gibson TA, Peña ED, Bedore LM. The relation between language experience and receptive-expressive semantic gaps in bilingual children. Int J Biling Educ Biling 2014; 17 (01) 90-110
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 54 Gibson TA, Oller DK, Jarmulowicz L, Ethington CA. The receptive-expressive gap in the vocabulary of young second-language learners: robustness and possible mechanisms. Biling (Camb Engl) 2012; 15 (01) 102-116
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 55 Gibson TA, Oller DK, Jarmulowicz L. Difficulties using standardized tests to identify the receptive expressive gap in bilingual children's vocabularies. Biling (Camb Engl) 2018; 21 (02) 328-339
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 56 Paul R. Language Disorders from Infancy through Adolescence: Assessment & Intervention. 3rd ed. Mosby; 2007
  Google Scholar
• 57 Friberg JC. Considerations for test selection: how do validity and reliability impact diagnostic decisions?. Child Lang Teach Ther 2010; 26 (01) 77-92
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 58 Gollan TH, Montoya RI, Cera C, Sandoval TC. More use almost always a means a smaller frequency effect: aging, bilingualism, and the weaker links hypothesis. J Mem Lang 2008; 58 (03) 787-814
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 59 Peña ED. Lost in translation: methodological considerations in cross-cultural research. Child Dev 2007; 78 (04) 1255-1264
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 60 Bedore LM, Peña ED, Gillam RB, Ho T-H. Language sample measures and language ability in Spanish-English bilingual kindergarteners. J Commun Disord 2010; 43 (06) 498-510
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 61 Thordardottir E. The relationship between bilingual exposure and morphosyntactic development. Int J Speech Lang Pathol 2015; 17 (02) 97-114
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 62 Gross M, Buac M, Kaushanskaya M. Conceptual scoring of receptive and expressive vocabulary measures in simultaneous and sequential bilingual children. Am J Speech Lang Pathol 2014; 23 (04) 574-586
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 63 Mancilla-Martinez J, Mulker Greenfader C, Ochoa W. Spanish-speaking preschoolers' conceptual vocabulary knowledge: towards more comprehensive assessment. NHSA Dialog 2018; 21 (01) 22-49
  PubMedGoogle Scholar
• 64 Vygotskij LS. Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Nachdr. In: Cole M, John-Steiner V, Scribner S, Souberman E, eds. Harvard University Press; 1978
  Google Scholar
• 65 Orellana CI, Wada R, Gillam RB. The use of dynamic assessment for the diagnosis of language disorders in bilingual children: a meta-analysis. Am J Speech Lang Pathol 2019; 28 (03) 1298-1317
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 66 Conti-Ramsden G, Botting N, Faragher B. Psycholinguistic markers for specific language impairment (SLI). J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2001; 42 (06) 741-748
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 67 Graf Estes K, Evans JL, Else-Quest NM. Differences in the nonword repetition performance of children with and without specific language impairment: a meta-analysis. J Speech Lang Hear Res 2007; 50 (01) 177-195
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 68 Messer MH, Leseman PPM, Boom J, Mayo AY. Phonotactic probability effect in nonword recall and its relationship with vocabulary in monolingual and bilingual preschoolers. J Exp Child Psychol 2010; 105 (04) 306-323
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 69 Kohnert K, Windsor J, Yim D. Do language-based processing tasks separate children with language impairment from typical bilinguals?. Learn Disabil Res Pract 2006; 21 (01) 19-29
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 70 Windsor J, Kohnert K, Lobitz KF, Pham GT. Cross-language nonword repetition by bilingual and monolingual children. Am J Speech Lang Pathol 2010; 19 (04) 298-310
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 71 Boerma T, Chiat S, Leseman P, Timmermeister M, Wijnen F, Blom E. A quasi-universal nonword repetition task as a diagnostic tool for bilingual children learning Dutch as a second language. J Speech Lang Hear Res 2015; 58 (06) 1747-1760
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 72 Girbau D, Schwartz RG. Phonological working memory in Spanish-English bilingual children with and without specific language impairment. J Commun Disord 2008; 41 (02) 124-145
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 73 Thordardottir E, Brandeker M. The effect of bilingual exposure versus language impairment on nonword repetition and sentence imitation scores. J Commun Disord 2013; 46 (01) 1-16
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 74 Gutiérrez-Clellen VF, Simon-Cereijido G. Using nonword repetition tasks for the identification of language impairment in Spanish-English speaking children: does the language of assessment matter?. Learn Disabil Res Pract 2010; 25 (01) 48-58
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 75 Summers C, Bohman TM, Gillam RB, Peña ED, Bedore LM. Bilingual performance on nonword repetition in Spanish and English. Int J Lang Commun Disord 2010; 45 (04) 480-493
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 76 Antonijevic-Elliott S, Lyons R, O' Malley MP. et al. Language assessment of monolingual and multilingual children using non-word and sentence repetition tasks. Clin Linguist Phon 2020; 34 (04) 293-311
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 77 Chiat S, Polišenská K. A framework for crosslinguistic nonword repetition tests: effects of bilingualism and socioeconomic status on children's performance. J Speech Lang Hear Res 2016; 59 (05) 1179-1189
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 78 Cockcroft K. A comparison between verbal working memory and vocabulary in bilingual and monolingual South African school beginners: implications for bilingual language assessment. Int J Biling Educ Biling 2016; 19 (01) 74-88
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 79 Engel de Abreu PMJ. Working memory in multilingual children: is there a bilingual effect?. Memory 2011; 19 (05) 529-537
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 80 de Abreu PMJE, Baldassi M, Puglisi ML, Befi-Lopes DM. Cross-linguistic and cross-cultural effects on verbal working memory and vocabulary: testing language-minority children with an immigrant background. J Speech Lang Hear Res 2013; 56 (02) 630-642
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 81 Mayer M. Frog, Where Are You? Dial Books for Young Readers. 1969
  Google Scholar
• 82 Heilmann JJ, Rojas R, Iglesias A, Miller JF. Clinical impact of wordless picture storybooks on bilingual narrative language production: a comparison of the 'Frog' stories. Int J Lang Commun Disord 2016; 51 (03) 339-345
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 83 Gutiérrez-Clellen VF, Simon-Cereijido G, Wagner C. Bilingual children with language impairment: a comparison with monolinguals and second language learners. Appl Psycholinguist 2008; 29 (01) 3-19
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 84 Rezzonico S, Chen X, Cleave PL. et al. Oral narratives in monolingual and bilingual preschoolers with SLI. Int J Lang Commun Disord 2015; 50 (06) 830-841
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 85 Verhoeven L, Steenge J, van Balkom H. Verb morphology as clinical marker of specific language impairment: evidence from first and second language learners. Res Dev Disabil 2011; 32 (03) 1186-1193
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 86 Ebert KD. Language sample analysis with bilingual children: translating research to practice. Top Lang Disord 2020; 40 (02) 182-201
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 87 Kapantzoglou M, Fergadiotis G, Restrepo MA. Language sample analysis and elicitation technique effects in bilingual children with and without language impairment. J Speech Lang Hear Res 2017; 60 (10) 2852-2864
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 88 Altman C, Armon-Lotem S, Fichman S, Walters J. Macrostructure, microstructure, and mental state terms in the narratives of English–Hebrew bilingual preschool children with and without specific language impairment. Appl Psycholinguist 2016; 37 (01) 165-193
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 89 Iluz-Cohen P, Walters J. Telling stories in two languages: narratives of bilingual preschool children with typical and impaired language. Biling Lang Cogn 2012; 15 (01) 58-74
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 90 Jacobson PF, Walden PR. Lexical diversity and omission errors as predictors of language ability in the narratives of sequential Spanish-English bilinguals: a cross-language comparison. Am J Speech Lang Pathol 2013; 22 (03) 554-565
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 91 Tsimpli IM, Peristeri E, Andreou M. Narrative production in monolingual and bilingual children with specific language impairment. Appl Psycholinguist 2016; 37 (01) 195-216
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 92 Govindarajan K, Paradis J. Narrative abilities of bilingual children with and without Developmental Language Disorder (SLI): differentiation and the role of age and input factors. J Commun Disord 2019; 77: 1-16
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 93 Simon-Cereijido G, Gutiérrez-Clellen VF. Spontaneous language markers of Spanish language impairment. Appl Psycholinguist 2007; 28 (02) 317-339
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 94 Miller CA, Kail R, Leonard LB, Tomblin JB. Speed of processing in children with specific language impairment. J Speech Lang Hear Res 2001; 44 (02) 416-433
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 95 Vugs B, Hendriks M, Cuperus J, Verhoeven L. Working memory performance and executive function behaviors in young children with SLI. Res Dev Disabil 2014; 35 (01) 62-74
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 96 Ebert KD, Rak D, Slawny CM, Fogg L. Attention in bilingual children with developmental language disorder. J Speech Lang Hear Res 2019; 62 (04) 979-992
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 97 Lum JAG, Conti-Ramsden G, Morgan AT, Ullman MT. Procedural learning deficits in specific language impairment (SLI): a meta-analysis of serial reaction time task performance. Cortex 2014; 51: 1-10
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 98 Morales J, Calvo A, Bialystok E. Working memory development in monolingual and bilingual children. J Exp Child Psychol 2013; 114 (02) 187-202
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 99 Bialystok E. Global-local and trail-making tasks by monolingual and bilingual children: beyond inhibition. Dev Psychol 2010; 46 (01) 93-105
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 100 Park J, Miller CA, Rosenbaum DA. et al. Bilingualism and procedural learning in typically developing children and children with language impairment. J Speech Lang Hear Res 2018; 61 (03) 634-644
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 101 Ebert KD, Pham G. Including nonlinguistic processing tasks in the identification of developmental language disorder. Am J Speech Lang Pathol 2019; 28 (03) 932-944
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 102 Bedore LM, Peña ED, Joyner D, Macken C. Parent and teacher rating of bilingual language proficiency and language development concerns. Int J Biling Educ Biling 2011; 14 (05) 489-511
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 103 Gutiérrez–Clellen VF, Kreiter J. Understanding child bilingual acquisition using parent and teacher reports. Appl Psycholinguist 2003; 24 (02) 267-288
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 104 Massa J, Gomes H, Tartter V, Wolfson V, Halperin JM. Concordance rates between parent and teacher clinical evaluation of language fundamentals observational rating scale. Int J Lang Commun Disord 2008; 43 (01) 99-110
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 105 Vagh SB, Pan BA, Mancilla-Martinez J. Measuring growth in bilingual and monolingual children's English productive vocabulary development: the utility of combining parent and teacher report. Child Dev 2009; 80 (05) 1545-1563
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 106 Chaffee CA, Cunningham CE, Secord-Gilbert M. et al. Screening effectiveness of the Minnesota Child Development Inventory expressive and receptive language scales: sensitivity, specificity, and predictive value. Psychol Assess 1990; 2 (01) 80-85
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 107 Laing GJ, Law J, Levin A, Logan S. Evaluation of a structured test and a parent led method for screening for speech and language problems: prospective population based study. BMJ 2002; 325 (7373): 1152-1152
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 108 Restrepo MA. Identifiers of predominantly Spanish-speaking children with language impairment. J Speech Lang Hear Res 1998; 41 (06) 1398-1411
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 109 Paradis J, Emmerzael K, Duncan TS. Assessment of English language learners: using parent report on first language development. J Commun Disord 2010; 43 (06) 474-497
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 110 Pua EPK, Lee MLC, Rickard Liow SJ. Screening bilingual preschoolers for language difficulties: utility of teacher and parent reports. J Speech Lang Hear Res 2017; 60 (04) 950-968
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 111 Li'el N, Williams C, Kane R. Identifying developmental language disorder in bilingual children from diverse linguistic backgrounds. Int J Speech Lang Pathol 2019; 21 (06) 613-622
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 112 Konishi H, Kanero J, Freeman MR, Golinkoff RM, Hirsh-Pasek K. Six principles of language development: implications for second language learners. Dev Neuropsychol 2014; 39 (05) 404-420
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 113 Dixon LQ, Wu S, Daraghmeh A. Profiles in bilingualism: factors influencing kindergartners' language proficiency. Early Child Educ J 2012; 40 (01) 25-34
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
• 114 Oetting JB, Gregory KD, Rivière AM. Changing how speech-language pathologists think and talk about dialect variation. Perspect ASHA Spec Interest Groups 2016; 1 (16) 28-37
  CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar