Download PDF
Semin Plast Surg 2021; 35(04): 284-291
DOI: 10.1055/s-0041-1736484
Review Article

Pediatric Facial Fractures

Rachel B. Lim
1   Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
,
Richard A. Hopper
2   Division of Plastic Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Washington, Seattle Washington
› Author Affiliations
› Further Information
    Permissions and Reprints

Abstract

Facial trauma is common in the pediatric population with most cases involving the soft tissue or dentoalveolar structures. Although facial fractures are relatively rare in children compared with adults, they are often associated with severe injury and can cause significant morbidity and disability. Fractures of the pediatric craniomaxillofacial skeleton must be managed with consideration for psychosocial, anatomical, growth and functional differences compared with the adult population. Although conservative management is more common in children, displaced fractures that will not self-correct with compensatory growth require accurate and stable reduction to prevent fixed abnormalities in form and function.

Keywords

facial trauma - facial fractures - NOE


Publication History

Article published online:
11 October 2021

© 2021. Thieme. All rights reserved.

Thieme Medical Publishers, Inc.
333 Seventh Avenue, 18th Floor, New York, NY 10001, USA

 

  • References

  • 1 Naran S, MacIsaac Z, Katzel E. et al. Pediatric craniofacial fractures: trajectories and ramifications. J Craniofac Surg 2016; 27 (06) 1535-1538
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 2 Table 22, Committee on Trauma, American College of Surgeons. NTDB Annual/Pediatric Report 2016. Chicago, IL
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 3 Imahara SD, Hopper RA, Wang J, Rivara FP, Klein MB. Patterns and outcomes of pediatric facial fractures in the United States: a survey of the National Trauma Data Bank. J Am Coll Surg 2008; 207 (05) 710-716
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 4 Thorén H, Schaller B, Suominen AL, Lindqvist C. Occurrence and severity of concomitant injuries in other areas than the face in children with mandibular and midfacial fractures. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2012; 70 (01) 92-96
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 5 Rottgers SA, Decesare G, Chao M. et al. Outcomes in pediatric facial fractures: early follow-up in 177 children and classification scheme. J Craniofac Surg 2011; 22 (04) 1260-1265
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 6 Siy RW, Brown RH, Koshy JC, Stal S, Hollier Jr LH. General management considerations in pediatric facial fractures. J Craniofac Surg 2011; 22 (04) 1190-1195
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 7 Totonchi A, Sweeney WM, Gosain AK. Distinguishing anatomic features of pediatric facial trauma. J Craniofac Surg 2012; 23 (03) 793-798
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 8 Posnick JC, Wells M, Pron GE. Pediatric facial fractures: evolving patterns of treatment. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1993; 51 (08) 836-844 , discussion 844–845
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 9 Wheeler J, Phillips J. Pediatric facial fractures and potential long-term growth disturbances. Craniomaxillofac Trauma Reconstr 2011; 4 (01) 43-52
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 10 Spalding PM. Peterson's Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery: Craniofacial Growth and Development. In: Miloro M, Ghali GE, Waite PD. eds. 3rd ed. People's Medical Publishing House - USA, Shelton, Connecticut. 2012
    Google Scholar
  • 11 Demianczuk ANA, Verchere C, Phillips JH. The effect on facial growth of pediatric mandibular fractures. J Craniofac Surg 1999; 10 (04) 323-328
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 12 McFadyen JG, Ramaiah R, Bhananker SM. Initial assessment and management of pediatric trauma patients. Int J Crit Illn Inj Sci 2012; 2 (03) 121-127
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 13 Holmes J, Miloro M, Ghali GE, Larsen P, Waite P. Pediatric Facial Trauma. In: Peterson's Principles of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. 2011. M Miloro, People's Medical Publishing House - USA, Shelton, Connecticut. 565-592
    Google Scholar
  • 14 Hogg NJV. Primary and secondary management of pediatric soft tissue injuries. Oral Maxillofac Surg Clin North Am 2012; 24 (03) 365-375
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 15 Vasconez HC, Buseman JL, Cunningham LL. Management of facial soft tissue injuries in children. J Craniofac Surg 2011; 22 (04) 1320-1326
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 16 Hopper RA, Salemy S, Sze RW. Diagnosis of midface fractures with CT: what the surgeon needs to know. Radiographics 2006; 26 (03) 783-793
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 17 Talwar AA, Heiman AJ, Kotamarti VS. et al. High-resolution maxillofacial computed tomography is superior to head computed tomography in determining the operative management of facial fractures. J Surg Res 2020; 256: 381-389
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 18 Alcalá-Galiano A, Arribas-García IJ, Martín-Pérez MA, Romance A, Montalvo-Moreno JJ, Juncos JMM. Pediatric facial fractures: children are not just small adults. Radiographics 2008; 28 (02) 441-461 , quiz 618
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 19 Zimmermann CE, Troulis MJ, Kaban LB. Pediatric facial fractures: recent advances in prevention, diagnosis and management. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2006; 35 (01) 2-13
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 20 Alimohammadi R. Imaging of dentoalveolar and jaw trauma. Radiol Clin North Am 2018; 56 (01) 105-124
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 21 Vezina N, Al-Halabi B, Shash H, Dudley RRGM, Gilardino MS. A review of techniques used in the management of growing skull fractures. J Craniofac Surg 2017; 28 (03) 604-609
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 22 Koltai PJ, Amjad I, Meyer D, Feustel PJ. Orbital fractures in children. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1995; 121 (12) 1375-1379
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 23 Shah RK, Dhingra JK, Carter BL, Rebeiz EE. Paranasal sinus development: a radiographic study. Laryngoscope 2003; 113 (02) 205-209
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 24 Coon D, Yuan N, Jones D, Howell LK, Grant MP, Redett RJ. Defining pediatric orbital roof fractures: patterns, sequelae, and indications for operation. Plast Reconstr Surg 2014; 134 (03) 442e-448e
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 25 Lucas JP, Allen M, Nguyen BK, Svider PF, Folbe AJ, Carron M. Orbital roof fractures: an evidence-based approach. Facial Plast Surg Aesthet Med 2020; 22 (06) 471-480
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 26 Firriolo JM, Ontiveros NC, Pike CM. et al. Pediatric orbital floor fractures: clinical and radiological predictors of tissue entrapment and the effect of operative timing on ocular outcomes. J Craniofac Surg 2017; 28 (08) 1966-1971
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 27 Grant III JH, Patrinely JR, Weiss AH, Kierney PC, Gruss JS. Trapdoor fracture of the orbit in a pediatric population. Plast Reconstr Surg 2002; 109 (02) 482-489 , discussion 490–495
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 28 Broyles JM, Jones D, Bellamy J. et al. Pediatric orbital floor fractures: outcome analysis of 72 children with orbital floor fractures. Plast Reconstr Surg 2015; 136 (04) 822-828
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 29 Cohen SM, Garrett CG. Pediatric orbital floor fractures: nausea/vomiting as signs of entrapment. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2003; 129 (01) 43-47
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 30 Grant III JH, Patrinely JR, Weiss AH, Kierney PC, Gruss JS. Trapdoor fracture of the orbit in a pediatric population. Plast Reconstr Surg 2002; 109 (02) 482-489 , discussion 490–495
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 31 Azzi J, Azzi AJ, Cugno S. Resorbable material for pediatric orbital floor reconstruction. J Craniofac Surg 2018; 29 (07) 1693-1696
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 32 Hoffmann JF. An algorithm for the initial management of nasal trauma. Facial Plast Surg 2015; 31 (03) 183-193
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 33 Kang WK, Han DG, Kim SE, Lee YJ, Shim JS. Bone remodeling after conservative treatment of nasal bone fracture in pediatric patients. Arch Craniofac Surg 2020; 21 (03) 166-170
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 34 Lee DH, Jang YJ. Pediatric nasal bone fractures: does delayed treatment really lead to adverse outcomes?. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2013; 77 (05) 726-731
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 35 Grunwaldt L, Smith DM, Zuckerbraun NS. et al. Pediatric facial fractures: demographics, injury patterns, and associated injuries in 772 consecutive patients. Plast Reconstr Surg 2011; 128 (06) 1263-1271
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 36 Liau JY, Woodlief J, van Aalst JA. Pediatric nasoorbitoethmoid fractures. J Craniofac Surg 2011; 22 (05) 1834-1838
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 37 Lopez J, Luck JD, Faateh M. et al. Pediatric nasoorbitoethmoid fractures: cause, classification, and management. Plast Reconstr Surg 2019; 143 (01) 211-222
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Singh DJ, Bartlett SP. Pediatric craniofacial fractures: long-term consequences. Clin Plast Surg 2004; 31 (03) 499-518 , vii
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 39 Davidson EH, Schuster L, Rottgers SA. et al. Severe pediatric midface trauma: a prospective study of growth and development. J Craniofac Surg 2015; 26 (05) 1523-1528
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 40 Bae SS, Aronovich S. Trauma to the pediatric temporomandibular joint. Oral Maxillofac Surg Clin North Am 2018; 30 (01) 47-60
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 41 Kao R, Rabbani CC, Patel JM. et al. Management of mandible fracture in 150 children across 7 years in a us tertiary care hospital. JAMA Facial Plast Surg 2019; 21 (05) 414-418
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 42 Lee CC, Tannyhill RJ, Peacock ZS. What Factors are associated with open treatment of pediatric mandibular fractures?. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2021; 79 (06) 1292-1301
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 43 Goth S, Sawatari Y, Peleg M. Management of pediatric mandible fractures. J Craniofac Surg 2012; 23 (01) 47-56
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 44 Chocron Y, Azzi AJ, Davison P. Management of pediatric mandibular fractures using resorbable plates. J Craniofac Surg 2019; 30 (07) 2111-2114
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 45 Khan SR, Khan ZA, Hanif S, Riaz N, Warraich RA. Patterns of facial fractures in children. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2019; 57 (10) 1009-1013
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar