Semin Neurol 2021; 41(06): 731-743
DOI: 10.1055/s-0041-1726356
Review Article

Approach to Tremor Disorders

Andrea Lee
1   Parkinson's Disease and Movement Disorders Institute, Division of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York
,
Harini Sarva
1   Parkinson's Disease and Movement Disorders Institute, Division of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York
› Author Affiliations
Funding We received no financial support during the preparation of this manuscript.

Abstract

Tremor disorders are diverse and complex. Historical clues and examination features play a major role in diagnosing these disorders, but diagnosis can be challenging due to phenotypic overlap. Ancillary testing, such as neuroimaging or laboratory testing, is driven by the history and examination, and should be performed particularly when there are other neurological or systemic manifestations. The pathophysiology of tremor is not entirely understood, but likely involves multiple networks along with the cerebello-thalamo-cortical pathways. Treatment options include medications, botulinum toxin, surgery, and nonpharmacologic interventions utilizing physical and occupational therapies and assistive devices. Further work is needed in developing accurate diagnostic tests and better treatment options for tremor disorders.



Publication History

Article published online:
26 November 2021

© 2021. Thieme. All rights reserved.

Thieme Medical Publishers, Inc.
333 Seventh Avenue, 18th Floor, New York, NY 10001, USA

 
  • References

  • 1 Bhatia KP, Bain P, Bajaj N. et al; Tremor Task Force of the International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society. Consensus statement on the classification of tremors from the task force on tremor of the International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society. Mov Disord 2018; 33 (01) 75-87
  • 2 Louis ED, Ottman R. How many people in the USA have essential tremor? Deriving a population estimate based on epidemiological data. Tremor Other Hyperkinet Mov (N Y) 2014; 4: 259
  • 3 Marras C, Beck JC, Bower JH. et al; Parkinson's Foundation P4 Group. Prevalence of Parkinson's disease across North America. NPJ Parkinson's Dis 2018; 4: 21
  • 4 Müller J, Kiechl S, Wenning GK. et al. The prevalence of primary dystonia in the general community. Neurology 2002; 59 (06) 941-943
  • 5 Albanese A, Di Giovanni M, Lalli S. Dystonia: diagnosis and management. Eur J Neurol 2019; 26 (01) 5-17
  • 6 Defazio G, Gigante AF, Abbruzzese G. et al. Tremor in primary adult-onset dystonia: prevalence and associated clinical features. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2013; 84 (04) 404-408
  • 7 Erro R, Rubio-Agusti I, Saifee TA. et al. Rest and other types of tremor in adult-onset primary dystonia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2014; 85 (09) 965-968
  • 8 Crawford P, Zimmerman EE. Tremor: sorting through the differential diagnosis. Am Fam Physician 2018; 97 (03) 180-186
  • 9 Ondo WG, Satija P. Task-specific writing tremor: clinical phenotypes, progression, treatment outcomes, and proposed nomenclature. Int J Neurosci 2012; 122 (02) 88-91
  • 10 Zesiewicz T, Vu T, Carranza MA. et al. Unusual wrist tremor: unilateral isometric tremor?. Tremor Other Hyperkinet Mov (N Y) 2014; 4: 4
  • 11 Puschmann A, Wszolek ZK. Diagnosis and treatment of common forms of tremor. Semin Neurol 2011; 31 (01) 65-77
  • 12 Louis ED. Diagnosis and management of tremor. Continuum (Minneap Minn) 2016; 22 (4 Movement Disorders): 1143-1158
  • 13 Yaltho TC, Ondo WG. Orthostatic tremor: a review of 45 cases. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2014; 20 (07) 723-725
  • 14 Louis ED, Bares M, Benito-Leon J. et al. Essential tremor-plus: a controversial new concept. Lancet Neurol 2020; 19 (03) 266-270
  • 15 Brin MF, Koller W. Epidemiology and genetics of essential tremor. Mov Disord 1998; 13 (Suppl. 03) 55-63
  • 16 Ascherio A, Schwarzschild MA. The epidemiology of Parkinson's disease: risk factors and prevention. Lancet Neurol 2016; 15 (12) 1257-1272
  • 17 de Rijk MC, Launer LJ, Berger K. et al; Neurologic Diseases in the Elderly Research Group. Prevalence of Parkinson's disease in Europe: a collaborative study of population-based cohorts. Neurology 2000; 54 (11, Suppl 5): S21-S23
  • 18 Buijink AW, Contarino MF, Koelman JH, Speelman JD, van Rootselaar AF. How to tackle tremor - systematic review of the literature and diagnostic work-up. Front Neurol 2012; 3: 146
  • 19 Parkinson Study Group CALM Cohort Investigators. Long-term effect of initiating pramipexole vs levodopa in early Parkinson disease. Arch Neurol 2009; 66 (05) 563-570
  • 20 Albanese A, Bhatia K, Bressman SB. et al. Phenomenology and classification of dystonia: a consensus update. Mov Disord 2013; 28 (07) 863-873
  • 21 Louis ED, Levy G, Côte LJ, Mejia H, Fahn S, Marder K. Clinical correlates of action tremor in Parkinson disease. Arch Neurol 2001; 58 (10) 1630-1634
  • 22 Gigante AF, Bruno G, Iliceto G. et al. Action tremor in Parkinson's disease: frequency and relationship to motor and non-motor signs. Eur J Neurol 2015; 22 (02) 223-228
  • 23 Bain PG, Findley LJ, Britton TC. et al. Primary writing tremor. Brain 1995; 118 (Pt 6): 1461-1472
  • 24 Albanese A, Lalli S. Is this dystonia?. Mov Disord 2009; 24 (12) 1725-1731
  • 25 Heilman KM. Orthostatic tremor. Arch Neurol 1984; 41 (08) 880-881
  • 26 Hess CW, Saunders-Pullman R. Movement disorders and alcohol misuse. Addict Biol 2006; 11 (02) 117-125
  • 27 Pellicano C, Benincasa D, Pisani V, Buttarelli FR, Giovannelli M, Pontieri FE. Prodromal non-motor symptoms of Parkinson's disease. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 2007; 3 (01) 145-152
  • 28 Dening TR, Berrios GE. Wilson's disease: a longitudinal study of psychiatric symptoms. Biol Psychiatry 1990; 28 (03) 255-265
  • 29 Kalus S, King J, Lui E, Gaillard F. Fragile X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome: an under-recognised cause of tremor and ataxia. J Clin Neurosci 2016; 23: 162-164
  • 30 Morini A, Malaguti MC, Marangoni S, Espay AJ. Neuropathic tremor in chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy: the acquired equivalent of the Roussy-Levy syndrome. Mov Disord Clin Pract (Hoboken) 2015; 3 (02) 173-175
  • 31 Lenka A, Louis ED. Revisiting the clinical phenomenology of “cerebellar tremor”: beyond the intention tremor. Cerebellum 2019; 18 (03) 565-574
  • 32 Whaley NR, Putzke JD, Baba Y, Wszolek ZK, Uitti RJ. Essential tremor: phenotypic expression in a clinical cohort. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2007; 13 (06) 333-339
  • 33 Thomas B, Beal MF. Parkinson's disease. Hum Mol Genet 2007; 16 Spec No. 2: R183-R194
  • 34 Groen JL, Kallen MC, van de Warrenburg BP. et al. Phenotypes and genetic architecture of focal primary torsion dystonia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2012; 83 (10) 1006-1011
  • 35 Williams L, McGovern E, Kimmich O. et al. Epidemiological, clinical and genetic aspects of adult onset isolated focal dystonia in Ireland. Eur J Neurol 2017; 24 (01) 73-81
  • 36 Zesiewicz TA, Elble R, Louis ED. et al; Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Practice parameter: therapies for essential tremor: report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 2005; 64 (12) 2008-2020
  • 37 Hess CW, Pullman SL. Tremor: clinical phenomenology and assessment techniques. Tremor Other Hyperkinet Mov (N Y) 2012; 2: 2
  • 38 DeOrchis VS, Geyer HL, Herskovitz S. Teaching video neuroimages: orthostatic tremor: the helicopter sign. Neurology 2013; 80 (14) e161
  • 39 Rudzińska M, Krawczyk M, Wójcik-Pędziwiatr M, Szczudlik A, Wasielewska A. Tremor associated with focal and segmental dystonia. Neurol Neurochir Pol 2013; 47 (03) 223-231
  • 40 Deuschl G. Dystonic tremor. Rev Neurol (Paris) 2003; 159 (10, Pt 1): 900-905
  • 41 Shanker VL. Case studies in tremor. Neurol Clin 2016; 34 (03) 651-665
  • 42 Kojovic M, Cordivari C, Bhatia K. Myoclonic disorders: a practical approach for diagnosis and treatment. Ther Adv Neurol Disorder 2011; 4 (01) 47-62
  • 43 Louis ED. Twelve clinical pearls to help distinguish essential tremor from other tremors. Expert Rev Neurother 2014; 14 (09) 1057-1065
  • 44 Thenganatt MA, Louis ED. Distinguishing essential tremor from Parkinson's disease: bedside tests and laboratory evaluations. Expert Rev Neurother 2012; 12 (06) 687-696
  • 45 Murgai AA, Jog M. Focal limb dystonia and tremor: clinical update. Toxicon 2020; 176: 10-14
  • 46 Rossi M, Wilken M, Morisset P, Fariña S, Cerquetti D, Merello M. Facial tremors in patients with and without parkinsonism. Neurol Sci 2016; 37 (12) 1999-2002
  • 47 Barkmeier-Kraemer JM. Isolated voice tremor: a clinical variant of essential tremor or a distinct clinical phenotype?. Tremor Other Hyperkinet Mov (N Y) 2020; 10: 10
  • 48 Proudlock FA, Gottlob I, Constantinescu CS. Oscillopsia without nystagmus caused by head titubation in a patient with multiple sclerosis. J Neuroophthalmol 2002; 22 (02) 88-91
  • 49 Kestenbaum M, Michalec M, Yu Q, Pullman SL, Louis ED. Intention tremor of the legs in essential tremor: prevalence and clinical correlates. Mov Disord Clin Pract (Hoboken) 2015; 2 (01) 24-28
  • 50 Sarva H, Severt WL, Jacoby N, Pullman SL, Saunders-Pullman R. Secondary orthostatic tremor in the setting of cerebellar degeneration. J Clin Neurosci 2016; 27: 173-175
  • 51 Lenka A, Pal PK, Bhatti DE, Louis ED. Pathogenesis of primary orthostatic tremor: current concepts and controversies. Tremor Other Hyperkinet Mov (N Y) 2017; 7: 513
  • 52 Michalec M, Hernandez N, Clark LN, Louis ED. The spiral axis as a clinical tool to distinguish essential tremor from dystonia cases. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2014; 20 (05) 541-544
  • 53 Gan Sr SR, Wang J, Figueroa KP. et al. Postural tremor and ataxia progression in spinocerebellar ataxias. Tremor Other Hyperkinet Mov (N Y) 2017; 7: 492
  • 54 Apartis E, Blancher A, Meissner WG. et al. FXTAS: new insights and the need for revised diagnostic criteria. Neurology 2012; 79 (18) 1898-1907
  • 55 Factor SA, Burkhard PR, Caroff S. et al. Recent developments in drug-induced movement disorders: a mixed picture. Lancet Neurol 2019; 18 (09) 880-890
  • 56 Yomtoob J, Koloms K, Bega D. DAT-SPECT imaging in cases of drug-induced parkinsonism in a specialty movement disorders practice. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2018; 53: 37-41
  • 57 Berardelli A, Wenning GK, Antonini A. et al. EFNS/MDS-ES/ENS [corrected] recommendations for the diagnosis of Parkinson's disease. Eur J Neurol 2013; 20 (01) 16-34
  • 58 Fung VS, Jinnah HA, Bhatia K, Vidailhet M. Assessment of patients with isolated or combined dystonia: an update on dystonia syndromes. Mov Disord 2013; 28 (07) 889-898
  • 59 Lohmann K, Klein C. Update on the genetics of dystonia. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep 2017; 17 (03) 26
  • 60 Moraes BT, Biase NG. Laryngoscopy evaluation protocol for the differentiation of essential and dystonic voice tremor. Rev Bras Otorrinolaringol (Engl Ed) 2016; 82 (01) 88-96
  • 61 Hadjivassiliou M, Martindale J, Shanmugarajah P. et al. Causes of progressive cerebellar ataxia: prospective evaluation of 1500 patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2017; 88 (04) 301-309
  • 62 Hagerman PJ, Hagerman RJ. Fragile X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2015; 1338: 58-70
  • 63 Pedroso JL, Vale TC, Braga-Neto P. et al. Acute cerebellar ataxia: differential diagnosis and clinical approach. Arq Neuropsiquiatr 2019; 77 (03) 184-193
  • 64 Pedersen SF, Pullman SL, Latov N, Brannagan III TH. Physiological tremor analysis of patients with anti-myelin-associated glycoprotein associated neuropathy and tremor. Muscle Nerve 1997; 20: 38-44
  • 65 Hallett M. Tremor: pathophysiology. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2014; 20 (Suppl. 01) S118-S122
  • 66 Miskin C, Carvalho KS. Tremors: essential tremor and beyond. Semin Pediatr Neurol 2018; 25: 34-41
  • 67 Louis ED, Lenka A. The olivary hypothesis of essential tremor: time to lay this model to rest?. Tremor Other Hyperkinet Mov (N Y) 2017; 7: 473
  • 68 Katzenschlager R, Sampaio C, Costa J, Lees A. Anticholinergics for symptomatic management of Parkinson's disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2003; (02) CD003735
  • 69 Archer DB, Coombes SA, Chu WT. et al. A widespread visually-sensitive functional network relates to symptoms in essential tremor. Brain 2018; 141 (02) 472-485
  • 70 Nieuwhof F, Panyakaew P, van de Warrenburg BP, Gallea C, Helmich RC. The patchy tremor landscape: recent advances in pathophysiology. Curr Opin Neurol 2018; 31 (04) 455-461
  • 71 Dirkx MF, den Ouden H, Aarts E. et al. The cerebral network of Parkinson's tremor: an effective connectivity fMRI study. J Neurosci 2016; 36 (19) 5362-5372
  • 72 Pasquini J, Ceravolo R, Qamhawi Z. et al. Progression of tremor in early stages of Parkinson's disease: a clinical and neuroimaging study. Brain 2018; 141 (03) 811-821
  • 73 Dirkx MF, Zach H, Bloem BR, Hallett M, Helmich RC. The nature of postural tremor in Parkinson disease. Neurology 2018; 90 (13) e1095-e1103
  • 74 Quartarone A, Hallett M. Emerging concepts in the physiological basis of dystonia. Mov Disord 2013; 28 (07) 958-967
  • 75 Kirke DN, Battistella G, Kumar V. et al. Neural correlates of dystonic tremor: a multimodal study of voice tremor in spasmodic dysphonia. Brain Imaging Behav 2017; 11 (01) 166-175
  • 76 White JJ, Sillitoe RV. Genetic silencing of olivocerebellar synapses causes dystonia-like behaviour in mice. Nat Commun 2017; 8: 14912
  • 77 Hou L, Chen W, Liu X, Qiao D, Zhou FM. Exercise-induced neuroprotection of the nigrostriatal dopamine system in Parkinson's disease. Front Aging Neurosci 2017; 9: 358
  • 78 Ahlskog JE. Does vigorous exercise have a neuroprotective effect in Parkinson disease?. Neurology 2011; 77 (03) 288-294
  • 79 Iyer RS, Wattamwar P, Thomas B. Reversible Holmes' tremor due to spontaneous intracranial hypotension. BMJ Case Rep 2017; 2017: bcr-2017-220348
  • 80 Paviour DC, Jäger HR, Wilkinson L, Jahanshahi M, Lees AJ. Holmes tremor: Application of modern neuroimaging techniques. Mov Disord 2006; 21 (12) 2260-2262
  • 81 Boonstra F, Florescu G, Evans A. et al. Tremor in multiple sclerosis is associated with cerebello-thalamic pathology. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2017; 124 (12) 1509-1514
  • 82 Morgan JC, Kurek JA, Davis JL, Sethi KD. Insights into pathophysiology from medication-induced tremor. Tremor Other Hyperkinet Mov (N Y) 2017; 7: 442
  • 83 Zesiewicz TA, Elble RJ, Louis ED. et al. Evidence-based guideline update: treatment of essential tremor: report of the Quality Standards subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 2011; 77 (19) 1752-1755
  • 84 Koller WC, Vetere-Overfield B. Acute and chronic effects of propranolol and primidone in essential tremor. Neurology 1989; 39 (12) 1587-1588
  • 85 Lyons KE, Pahwa R. Pharmacotherapy of essential tremor : an overview of existing and upcoming agents. CNS Drugs 2008; 22 (12) 1037-1045
  • 86 Nida A, Alston J, Schweinfurth J. Primidone therapy for essential vocal tremor. JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2016; 142 (02) 117-121
  • 87 Paul KC, Chuang YH, Shih IF. et al. The association between lifestyle factors and Parkinson's disease progression and mortality. Mov Disord 2019; 34 (01) 58-66
  • 88 Jackson A, Forsyth CB, Shaikh M. et al. Diet in Parkinson's disease: critical role for the microbiome. Front Neurol 2019; 10: 1245
  • 89 Alcalay RN, Gu Y, Mejia-Santana H, Cote L, Marder KS, Scarmeas N. The association between Mediterranean diet adherence and Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 2012; 27 (06) 771-774
  • 90 Connolly BS, Lang AE. Pharmacological treatment of Parkinson disease: a review. JAMA 2014; 311 (16) 1670-1683
  • 91 Ferreira JJ, Katzenschlager R, Bloem BR. et al. Summary of the recommendations of the EFNS/MDS-ES review on therapeutic management of Parkinson's disease. Eur J Neurol 2013; 20 (01) 5-15
  • 92 Koller WC, Herbster G. Adjuvant therapy of parkinsonian tremor. Arch Neurol 1987; 44 (09) 921-923
  • 93 Foster NL, Newman RP, LeWitt PA, Gillespie MM, Larsen TA, Chase TN. Peripheral beta-adrenergic blockade treatment of parkinsonian tremor. Ann Neurol 1984; 16 (04) 505-508
  • 94 Herring AB. Action of pronethalol on Parkinsonian tremor. Lancet 1964; 2 (7365): 892
  • 95 Owen DA, Marsden CD. Effect of adrenergic beta-blockade on parkinsonian tremor. Lancet 1965; 2 (7425): 1259-1262
  • 96 Castelão M, Marques RE, Duarte GS. et al. Botulinum toxin type A therapy for cervical dystonia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2017; 12: CD003633
  • 97 Bledsoe IO, Comella CL. Botulinum toxin treatment of cervical dystonia. Semin Neurol 2016; 36 (01) 47-53
  • 98 Rana AQ, Vaid HM. A review of primary writing tremor. Int J Neurosci 2012; 122 (03) 114-118
  • 99 Hassan A, Ahlskog JE, Matsumoto JY, Milber JM, Bower JH, Wilkinson JR. Orthostatic tremor: clinical, electrophysiologic, and treatment findings in 184 patients. Neurology 2016; 86 (05) 458-464
  • 100 Evidente VG, Adler CH, Caviness JN, Gwinn KA. Effective treatment of orthostatic tremor with gabapentin. Mov Disord 1998; 13 (05) 829-831
  • 101 Raina GB, Cersosimo MG, Folgar SS. et al. Holmes tremor: clinical description, lesion localization, and treatment in a series of 29 cases. Neurology 2016; 86 (10) 931-938
  • 102 Pfeiffer RF. Wilson disease. Continuum (Minneap Minn) 2016; 22 (4 Movement Disorders): 1246-1261
  • 103 Roberts EA, Schilsky ML. American Association for Study of Liver Diseases (AASLD). Diagnosis and treatment of Wilson disease: an update. Hepatology 2008; 47 (06) 2089-2111
  • 104 Van den Bergh PYK, Hadden RDM, Bouche P. et al; European Federation of Neurological Societies, Peripheral Nerve Society. European Federation of Neurological Societies/Peripheral Nerve Society guideline on management of chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy: report of a joint task force of the European Federation of Neurological Societies and the Peripheral Nerve Society - first revision. Eur J Neurol 2010; 17 (03) 356-363
  • 105 Munhoz RP, Picillo M, Fox SH. et al. Eligibility criteria for deep brain stimulation in Parkinson's disease, tremor, and dystonia. Can J Neurol Sci 2016; 43 (04) 462-471
  • 106 Dallapiazza RF, Lee DJ, De Vloo P. et al. Outcomes from stereotactic surgery for essential tremor. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2019; 90 (04) 474-482
  • 107 Graff-Radford J, Foote KD, Mikos AE. et al. Mood and motor effects of thalamic deep brain stimulation surgery for essential tremor. Eur J Neurol 2010; 17 (08) 1040-1046
  • 108 Huss DS, Dallapiazza RF, Shah BB, Harrison MB, Diamond J, Elias WJ. Functional assessment and quality of life in essential tremor with bilateral or unilateral DBS and focused ultrasound thalamotomy. Mov Disord 2015; 30 (14) 1937-1943
  • 109 Blomstedt P, Hariz GM, Hariz MI, Koskinen LO. Thalamic deep brain stimulation in the treatment of essential tremor: a long-term follow-up. Br J Neurosurg 2007; 21 (05) 504-509
  • 110 Pahwa R, Lyons KE, Wilkinson SB. et al. Long-term evaluation of deep brain stimulation of the thalamus. J Neurosurg 2006; 104 (04) 506-512
  • 111 Nazzaro JM, Pahwa R, Lyons KE. Long-term benefits in quality of life after unilateral thalamic deep brain stimulation for essential tremor. J Neurosurg 2012; 117 (01) 156-161
  • 112 Koller WC, Lyons KE, Wilkinson SB, Pahwa R. Efficacy of unilateral deep brain stimulation of the VIM nucleus of the thalamus for essential head tremor. Mov Disord 1999; 14 (05) 847-850
  • 113 Cury RG, Fraix V, Castrioto A. et al. Thalamic deep brain stimulation for tremor in Parkinson disease, essential tremor, and dystonia. Neurology 2017; 89 (13) 1416-1423
  • 114 Fasano A, Helmich RC. Tremor habituation to deep brain stimulation: Underlying mechanisms and solutions. Mov Disord 2019; 34 (12) 1761-1773
  • 115 Peng L, Fu J, Ming Y, Zeng S, He H, Chen L. The long-term efficacy of STN vs GPi deep brain stimulation for Parkinson disease: a meta-analysis. Medicine (Baltimore) 2018; 97 (35) e12153
  • 116 Wong JK, Cauraugh JH, Ho KWD. et al. STN vs. GPi deep brain stimulation for tremor suppression in Parkinson disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2019; 58: 56-62
  • 117 Schuepbach WM, Rau J, Knudsen K. et al; EARLYSTIM Study Group. Neurostimulation for Parkinson's disease with early motor complications. N Engl J Med 2013; 368 (07) 610-622
  • 118 Mestre TA, Espay AJ, Marras C, Eckman MH, Pollak P, Lang AE. Subthalamic nucleus-deep brain stimulation for early motor complications in Parkinson's disease-the EARLYSTIM trial: early is not always better. Mov Disord 2014; 29 (14) 1751-1756
  • 119 Pollak P. Deep brain stimulation for Parkinson's disease - patient selection. Handb Clin Neurol 2013; 116: 97-105
  • 120 DeLong MR, Huang KT, Gallis J. et al. Effect of advancing age on outcomes of deep brain stimulation for Parkinson disease. JAMA Neurol 2014; 71 (10) 1290-1295
  • 121 Hitti FL, Ramayya AG, McShane BJ, Yang AI, Vaughan KA, Baltuch GH. Long-term outcomes following deep brain stimulation for Parkinson's disease. J Neurosurg 2019; ; (online ahead of print) DOI: 10.3171/2018.8.JNS182081.
  • 122 Moro E, LeReun C, Krauss JK. et al. Efficacy of pallidal stimulation in isolated dystonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Neurol 2017; 24 (04) 552-560
  • 123 Panov F, Gologorsky Y, Connors G, Tagliati M, Miravite J, Alterman RL. Deep brain stimulation in DYT1 dystonia: a 10-year experience. Neurosurgery 2013; 73 (01) 86-93 , discussion 93
  • 124 Krause P, Brüggemann N, Völzmann S. et al. Long-term effect on dystonia after pallidal deep brain stimulation (DBS) in three members of a family with a THAP1 mutation. J Neurol 2015; 262 (12) 2739-2744
  • 125 Sarva H, Trosch R, Kiss ZHT. et al. Deep brain stimulation in isolated dystonia with a GNAL mutation. Mov Disord 2019; 34 (02) 301-303
  • 126 Ostrem JL, Racine CA, Glass GA. et al. Subthalamic nucleus deep brain stimulation in primary cervical dystonia. Neurology 2011; 76 (10) 870-878
  • 127 Evidente VGH, Baker ZJ, Evidente MH, Garrett R, Lambert M, Ponce FA. Orthostatic tremor is responsive to bilateral thalamic deep brain stimulation: report of two cases performed asleep. Tremor Other Hyperkinet Mov (N Y) 2018; 8: 566
  • 128 Hedera P. Treatment of Wilson's disease motor complications with deep brain stimulation. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2014; 1315: 16-23
  • 129 Elias WJ, Lipsman N, Ondo WG. et al. A randomized trial of focused ultrasound thalamotomy for essential tremor. N Engl J Med 2016; 375 (08) 730-739
  • 130 Park YS, Jung NY, Na YC, Chang JW. Four-year follow-up results of magnetic resonance-guided focused ultrasound thalamotomy for essential tremor. Mov Disord 2019; 34 (05) 727-734
  • 131 Chazen JL, Sarva H, Stieg PE. et al. Clinical improvement associated with targeted interruption of the cerebellothalamic tract following MR-guided focused ultrasound for essential tremor. J Neurosurg 2018; 129 (02) 315-323
  • 132 Bond AE, Shah BB, Huss DS. et al. Safety and efficacy of focused ultrasound thalamotomy for patients with medication-refractory, tremor-dominant Parkinson disease: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Neurol 2017; 74 (12) 1412-1418
  • 133 Jung NY, Park CK, Kim M, Lee PH, Sohn YH, Chang JW. The efficacy and limits of magnetic resonance-guided focused ultrasound pallidotomy for Parkinson's disease: a Phase I clinical trial. J Neurosurg 2018; ; (online ahead of print) DOI: 10.3171/2018.2.JNS172514.
  • 134 ExAblate Pallidotomy for Medically-Refractory Dyskinesia Symptoms or Motor Fluctuations of Advanced Parkinson's Disease. Accessed February 22, 2020 at: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03319485
  • 135 Kornatz KW, Christou EA, Enoka RM. Practice reduces motor unit discharge variability in a hand muscle and improves manual dexterity in old adults. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2005; 98 (06) 2072-2080
  • 136 Ranganathan VK, Siemionow V, Sahgal V, Liu JZ, Yue GH. Skilled finger movement exercise improves hand function. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2001; 56 (08) M518-M522
  • 137 Budini F, Lowery MM, Hutchinson M, Bradley D, Conroy L, De Vito G. Dexterity training improves manual precision in patients affected by essential tremor. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2014; 95 (04) 705-710
  • 138 Sequeira G, Keogh JW, Kavanagh JJ. Resistance training can improve fine manual dexterity in essential tremor patients: a preliminary study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2012; 93 (08) 1466-1468
  • 139 Vance NE, Ulanowski EA, Danzl MM. Yoga led by a physical therapist for individuals with essential tremor: an explorative pilot study. Complement Ther Clin Pract 2019; 34: 17-22
  • 140 Jitkritsadakul O, Thanawattano C, Anan C, Bhidayasiri R. Tremor's glove-an innovative electrical muscle stimulation therapy for intractable tremor in Parkinson's disease: a randomized sham-controlled trial. J Neurol Sci 2017; 381: 331-340
  • 141 Buki E, Katz R, Zacksenhouse M, Schlesinger I. Vib-bracelet: a passive absorber for attenuating forearm tremor. Med Biol Eng Comput 2018; 56 (05) 923-930
  • 142 Pahwa R, Dhall R, Ostrem J. et al. An acute randomized controlled trial of noninvasive peripheral nerve stimulation in essential tremor. Neuromodulation 2019; 22 (05) 537-545
  • 143 Cala Health Receives FDA Clearance for Cala ONE and Presents New Evidence at American Academy of Neurology Annual Meeting. Accessed February 22, 2020 at: https://www.essentialtremor.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/CalaHealth-FDAClearance-2018Apr26.pdf
  • 144 Jankovic J, Fahn S. Physiologic and pathologic tremors. Diagnosis, mechanism, and management. Ann Intern Med 1980; 93 (03) 460-465