Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Timeline
  • Published:

Claude Bernard: primer of the second biomedical revolution

Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology volume 2, pages 703–708 (2001)Cite this article

Abstract

Claude Bernard, the son of a Beaujolais winegrower, moved to Paris to pursue his literary ambitions and went on to become one of the fathers of modern life sciences. What did Bernard do to earn universal renown? And are his teachings relevant to modern science?

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

  • Purchase on Springer Link
  • Instant access to full article PDF
Buy now

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Figure 1: Claude Bernard during an experiment with his collaborators in the laboratory of the Collège de France.

References

  1. Darenberg, C. Histoire des Sciences Médicales Vols 1 & 2 (Baillière, Paris, 1870).

    Google Scholar 

  2. Major, R. H. A History of Medicine Vols 1 & 2 (Thomas, Springfield, 1954).

    Google Scholar 

  3. Grmek, M. D. Storia del Pensiero Medico Occidentale Vols 1–3 (Laterza, Roma-Bari, 1993–1998).

  4. Conrad, L. I., Neve, M., Nutton, V., Porter, R. & Wear, A. The Western Medical Tradition (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 1995).

    Google Scholar 

  5. Fraser, P. M. Ptolemaic Alexandria Vols 1–3 (Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford, 1972).

    Google Scholar 

  6. Von Staden, H. Herophilus. The Art of Medicine in Early Alexandria (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 1989).

    Google Scholar 

  7. Bonnet-Cadilhac, C. L'Anatomo-Physiologie de la Generation chez Galien (Thése pour le Doctorat de L'ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Paris, 1997; http://www.bium.univ-Paris5.fr).

    Google Scholar 

  8. Micheli, G. in Storia d'Italia. Scienza e Tecnica nella Cultura e nella Società dal Rinascimento ad oggi. (ed. Micheli, G.) 201–257 (Einaudi, Torino, 1980).

    Google Scholar 

  9. Grmek, M. D. La Premiére Révolution Biologique. Réflexions sur la Physiologie et la Médecine du XVIIe siecle (Payot, Paris, 1990).

    Google Scholar 

  10. Grmek, M. D. La Vita, le Malattie e la Storia (Di Renzo, Roma, 1998).

    Google Scholar 

  11. Duval, M. et al. L'oeuvre de Claude Bernard (Baillière, Paris, 1881).

    Google Scholar 

  12. Olmsted, J. & Olmsted, E. Claude Bernard and the Experimental Method in Medicine (Schuman, New York, 1952).

    Google Scholar 

  13. Canguilhem, G. Un physiologiste philosophe: Claude Bernard. Dialogue 5, 555–572 (1967).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Kockelmans, J. J. Philosophy of Science. The Historical Background (Free, New York, 1968).

    Google Scholar 

  15. Canguikhem, G. in Physiologie Vols 1–3 (ed. Kayser, C.) 11–50 (Flammarion, Paris, 1970).

    Google Scholar 

  16. Prochiantz, A. Claude Bernard, la Revolution Phsyiologique (Presse Universitaire de France, Paris, 1993).

    Google Scholar 

  17. Holmes, F. L. Claude Bernard and Animal Chemistry: The Emergence of a Scientist (Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1974).

    Book  Google Scholar 

  18. Lesch, J. E. Science and Medicine in France: The Emergence of Experimental Physiology, 1790–1855 (Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1984).

    Book  Google Scholar 

  19. Dagognet, F. in Bernard, C. Introduction a l'Étude de la Médecine Expérimentale (Flammarion, Paris, 1984).

    Google Scholar 

  20. Bernard, C. Introduction à l'Etude de la Médecine Expérimentale (Baillière, Paris, 1865).

    Google Scholar 

  21. Bernard, C. Leçons sur les Phénoménes de la Vie Communs aux Animaux et aux Végétaux Vols 1 & 2 (Baillière, Paris, 1878–1879).

  22. Piccolino, M. Biological machines: from mills to molecules. Nature Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 1, 149–153 (2000).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Bernard, C. Fr. Magendie (Baillière, Paris, 1856).

    Google Scholar 

  24. Bernard, C. Philosophie. Manuscrit inédit (Hatier–Boivin, Paris, 1937).

    Google Scholar 

  25. Haller, A. Primae Lineae Physiologiae (Vandenhoeck, Gottingen, 1747).

    Google Scholar 

  26. Cannon, W. B. Organization for physiological homeostasis, Physiol. Rev. 9, 399–431 (1929).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Adolph, E. F. Early concepts of physiological regulations, Physiol. Rev. 41, 737–770 (1961).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Grmek, M. D. Il calderone di Medea. La Sperimentazione sul Vivente nell'Antichità. (Laterza, Roma–Bari, 1996).

    Google Scholar 

  29. French, R. Dissection and Vivisection in the European Renaissance (Ashgate, Aldershot, 1999).

    Google Scholar 

  30. Hubel, D. H. & Wiesel, T. N. Early exploration of the visual cortex, Neuron 20, 401–412 (1998).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Foster, M. Claude Bernard (Fisher Unwin, London, 1899).

    Google Scholar 

  32. Pasteur, L. Claude Bernard. Idée de l'importance de ses travaux, de son enseignement et de sa methode, Le Moniteur Universel 311, 1284–1285 (1866).

    Google Scholar 

  33. Grmek, M. D. Psicologia ed Epistemologia della Ricerca Scientifica. Claude Bernard: le sue ricerche tossicologiche (Episteme Editrice, Milano, 1976)

    Google Scholar 

  34. Rostand, J. Le Courrier d'un Biologiste (Gallimard, Paris, 1970).

    Google Scholar 

  35. Bergson, H. in Centenaire de Claude Bernard. Discours (Le Matin, Paris, 1914).

    Google Scholar 

  36. Rodriguez de Romo, A. C. & Borgstein, J. Claudio Bernard and fat emulsion (or the Sleeping Beauty 150 years later). Gaz. Med. Mex. 136, 379–386 (2000).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Bernard, C. Leçons sur les Effets des Substances Toxiques et Medicamenteuses (Baillière, Paris, 1857).

    Book  Google Scholar 

  38. Bernard, C. Leçons de Physiologie Expérimentale appliquée a la Médecine Vol. 2 (Baillière, Paris, 1855–1856).

  39. Bernard, C. Leçons sur la Physiologie et la Pathologie du Systéme Nerveux Vol. 2 (Baillière, Paris, 1858).

    Book  Google Scholar 

  40. Bernard, C. Leçons sur les Propriétés Physiologiques et les Alterations Pathologiques des Liquides de l'Organisme Vol. 2 (Baillière, Paris, 1859).

    Google Scholar 

  41. Bernard, C. Leçons de Pathologie Expérimentale (Baillière, Paris, 1871).

    Google Scholar 

  42. Bernard, C. Leçons sur les Anesthésiques et sur l'Asphyxie (Baillière, Paris, 1874).

    Google Scholar 

  43. Bernard, C. Leçons sur la Chaleur Animale, sur les Effets de la Chaleur et de la Fiévre (Baillière, Paris, 1876).

    Google Scholar 

  44. Bernard, C. Leçons sur le Diabéte et la Glycogénèse Animale (Baillière, Paris, 1877).

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to G. Corbellini (Roma) and P. Mazzarello (Pavia) for critically reviewing the manuscript; and to G. Danieli (Ancona), P. d'Ascanio (Pisa), S. Irrera (Ancona), T. Manzoni (Ancona) and S. Modena (Ancona) for help and support.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. the Istituto di Fisiologia Umana, Università di Ancona, Via Tronto 10/A, Torrette di Ancona, I-60020, Ancona, Italy

    Fiorenzo Conti

Authors
  1. Fiorenzo Conti
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Related links

Related links

FURTHER INFORMATION

Musée Claude Bernard

Bibliothèque Nationale de France

Glossary

DETERMINISM

In philosophy, a theory for which natural, psychological (including the act of will) and social phenomena are causally determined by preceeding events or natural laws.

METAPHYSICS

From Mediaeval Latin metaphysica; in turn from the Greek μɛτα (after; over or beyond) τα φνσικα (physics). Although Aristotle gave several definitions of what was later called metaphysics, this term is most commonly used to indicate the branch of philosophy that is concerned with the ultimate nature (essence) of things — the 'absolute reality'.

POSITIVISM

A philosophical system recognizing only non-metaphysical facts and observable phenomena, and rejecting metaphysics and theism.

PSYCHE

From the Greek ψνχη related to ψνχω (to blow, to breathe), which means blowing, and recalls 'the breath of life'. It corresponds to the Latin anima and animus (the soul), and it generally refers to what is immaterial, moral or spiritual. As a modern term, it can be equated to 'mind' or 'higher brain functions'.

TELEOLOGY

From the Greek τɛλoζ or τɛλoζ (purpose, end) and λoγια (study). In philosophy, teleology is the study of the purpose(s) of things or events. In biology and medicine, it is the use of 'designs' or 'ultimate purposes' for explaining physiological phenomena.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Conti, F. Claude Bernard: primer of the second biomedical revolution. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2, 703–708 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1038/35089594

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/35089594

This article is cited by

Search

Advanced search

Quick links

Nature Briefing

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. Sign up for Nature Briefing