Abstract
This paper develops a human ecological perspective on cities and urban regions. It describes the role of cities in the expanding human ecological niche and its implications for sustainable urban development. I have used a new technique, ecological footprint analysis, to convert the material and energy flows required to sustain the human population and industrial metabolism of “the city” into a landecosystem area equivalent. This approach emphasizes that, although urbanization has become the dominant human settlement pattern, cities themselves constitute only a small part of the total ecological space appropriated by their human inhabitants. In short, the ecological locations of human settlements no longer coincide with their geographic locations. Every city and urban region depends for its existence and growth on a globally diffuse productive hinterland up to 200 times the size of the city itself. Cities are therefore increasingly vulnerable to global ecological change and geopolitical instability. Given the deteriorating state of the ecosphere, policies to decrease the ecological footprint of cities while increasing regional self-reliance may enhance urban sustainability.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Catton, W. (1986) Carrying capacity and the limits to freedom. Paper prepared for Social Ecology Session 1, XI World Congress of Sociology. New Delhi, India, 18 August 1986.
Costanza, R., and Daly, H. (1992) Natural capital and sustainable development. Conserv.Biol. 1, 37–45.
Daly, H. (1991) Sustainable development: From concept and theory toward operational principles. In Steady-State Economics (H. Daly, ed), 2nd edition, pp. 241–60. Island Press, Washington, DC.
Folke, C., Larsson, J., and Sweitzer, J. (1994) Renewable resource appropriation by cities. Paper presented at “Down to Earth: Practical Applications of Ecological Economics,” the Third International Meeting of the International Society for Ecological Economics, San José, Costa Rica, 24–28 October 1994.
IIED (1995) Citizen Action to Lighten Britain's Ecological Footprint. A report prepared for the UK Department of the Environment, International Institute for Environment and Development, London.
Mitlin, D., and Satterthwaite, D. (1994) Cities and sustainable development. Background Paper prepared for “Global forum ‘94,” Manchester, 24–28 June 1994. International Institute for Environment and Development, London.
Pauly, D., and Christensen, V. (1995) Primary production required to sustain global fisheries. Nature 374, 255–7.
Rees, W. E. (1990) Sustainable Development and the Biosphere. Teilhard Studies Number 23. American Teilhard Association for the Study of Man; or The ecology of sustainable development. The Ecologist 20, 18–23.
Rees, W. E. (1992) Ecological footprints and appropriated carrying capacity: What urban economics leaves out. Environ.Urban. 4, 121–30.
Rees, W. E. (1995a) Achieving sustainability: Reform or transformation? J.Plann.Lit. 9, 343–61.
Rees, W. E. (1995b) More jobs, less damage: A framework for sustainability, growth, and employment. Alternatives 21, 24–30.
Rees, W. E. (1996) Revisiting carrying capacity: Area-based indicators of sustainability. Popul.Environ. 17, 195–215.
Rees, W. E. and Wackernagel, M. (1994) Ecological footprints and appropriated carrying capacity: measuring the natural capital requirements of the human economy. In Investing in Natural Capital: The Ecological Economics Approach to Sustainability (A-M. Jansson, M. Hammer, C. Folke, and R. Costanza, eds.) pp. 362–90. Island Press, Washington.
Rees, W. E. and Wackernagel, M. (1996) Urban ecological footprints: Why cities cannot be sustainable (and why they are a key to sustainability). EIA Rev. (forthcoming).
Sterrer, W. (1993) Human economics: a non-human perspective. Ecol.Econ. 7, 183–202.
Vitousek, P. (1994) Beyond global warming: Ecology and global change. Ecology 75, 1861–76.
Vitousek, P., Ehrlich, P., Ehrlich, A., and Matson, P. (1986) Human appropriation of the products of photosynthesis. BioScience 36, 368–74.
Wackernagel, M., and Rees, W. E. (1995) Our Ecological Footprint: Reducing Human Impact on the Earth. New Society Publishers, Gabriola Island, British Columbia and Philadelphia, PA.
Wilson, E. O. (1988) The current state of biological diversity. In Biodiversity (E. O. Wilson, ed.), National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
von Weizsäcker, E. U. (1994) Ecological tax reform. In Earth Politics, (E. U. von Weizsäcker, ed.), pp. 129–140. Zed Books, London.
World Resources Institute (1992) World Resources 1992–93: A Guide to the Global Environment. Oxford University Press, New York and Oxford.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Rees, W.E. Urban ecosystems: the human dimension. Urban Ecosystems 1, 63–75 (1997). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014380105620
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014380105620