Abstract
We studied the startle response of the African butterfly fish, Pantodon buchholzi (Osteoglossomorpha, Osteoglossoidea). It is an upward movement, mediated by abduction of the pectoral fins, and is elicited by mechanical and visual stimuli. Because this fish inhabits the first few centimeters beneath the water surface, its startle response results in an aerial excursion that may be described as ballistic-like, following a motion as defined by linear acceleration. We show that the aerial excursion is well-modeled by a parabola. On average, a fish jumps no more than twice its height and travels horizontally about five times its standard length. The fish may exhibit variable in-flight trunk and fin movements, but neither increases the travel distance in air following the initial in-water propulsive event. Similar vertical jumps also occur entirely within the water column suggesting that this motor behavior of Pantodon is a general escape behavior analogous to a Mauthner neuron-induced escape response. The variability in its posture in air and its direction of motion after reentering the water enhances this act of vertical flight as a step in this fish's escape behavior. The aerial aspect of its escape behavior is only a consequence of its position in the water column.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Auerbach, A. A. & M. V. L. Bennett. 1969. Chemically mediated transmission at a giant fiber synapse in the central nervous system of a vertebrate. J. Gen. Physiol. 53: 183–210.
Bond, C. E. 1979. Biology of Fishes, W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 750 pp.
Breder, C. M. 1937. The perennial flying fish controversy. Science 86: 420–422.
Clark, F. N. 1925. The life history of Leuresthes tenuis, an atherine fish with tide controlled spawning habits. California Fish and Game Commission, Fisheries Bulletin 10. 51 pp.
Davenport, J. 1994. How and why do flying fish fly? Rev. Fish Biol. Fish. 40: 184–214.
Diamond, J. 1971. The Mauthner cell. pp. 265–346. In: W. S. Hoar & D. J. Randall (eds. ) Fish Physiology. Vol. 5. Academic Press, New York.
Eaton, R. C., R. A. Bombardieri & D. L. Meyer. 1977. The Mauthner-initiated startle response in teleost fish. J. Exp. Biol. 66: 65–81.
Eaton, R. C. & R. A. Bombardieri. 1978. Behavioral functions of the Mauthner neuron. pp. 221–244. In: D. Faber & H. Korn (ed. ) Neurobiology of the Mauthner Cell. Raven Press, New York.
Eaton, R. C., R. K. K. Lee & M. B. Foreman. 2001. The Mauthner cell and other identified neurons of the brainstem escape network of fish. Prog. Neurobiol. 63: 467–485.
Fish, F. E. 1990. Wing design and scaling of flying fish with regard to flight performance. J. Zool. Lond. 221: 391–403.
Gill, T. 1905. Parental care among the freshwater fishes. Smithson. Inst. Rep. 1688: 403–581.
Godin, J.-G. J. 1997. Evading predators. pp. 191–236. In: J.-G. J. Godin (ed. ) Behavioural Ecology of Teleost Fishes. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Graham, J. B. 1997. Air-Breathing Fishes: Evolution, Diversity, and Adaptation, Academic Press, London. 380 pp.
Greenwood, P. H. & K. S Thomson. 1960. The Pectoral Anatomy of Pantodon buchholzi Peters (A Freshwater Flying Fish) and the related osteoglossidae. Proc. R. Soc. Biol. Sci. Ser. B 135: 283–302.
Hale, M. E. 2002. S-and C-start escape responses of the muskel-lunge (Esox masquinongy) require alternative neuromotor mechanisms. J. Exp. Biol. 205: 2005–2016.
Hubbs, C. L. 1933. Observations on the flight of fishes, with a statistical study of the flight of the Cypselurinae and remarks on the evolution of flight of fishes. Papers of the Michigan Academy of Science, Arts, and Letters. 17: 575–611.
Kawachi, K., Y. Inada & A. Azuma. 1993. Optimal flight path of flying fish. J. Theoret. Biol. 163: 145–159.
Lagler, K. F., J. E. Bardach, R. R. Miller & D. R. M. Passino. 1977. Ichthyology, 2nd edition. Wiley & Sons, New York. 391 pp.
Lauder, G. V. & K. F. Leim. 1983. The evolution and interrelation-ships of the Actinopterygian fishes. Bull. Mus. Compar. Zool. 150: 95–197.
Lin J. W., D. S. Faber & M. R. Wood. 1983. Organized projection of the goldfish saccular nerve onto the Mauthner cell lateral dendrite. Brain Res. 274: 319–324.
Lowe-McConnell, R. H. 1975. Fish Communities in Tropical Freshwaters, Longman, London. 160 pp.
Marshall, N. B. 1970. The Life of Fishes, Universe Books, New York. 443 pp.
Marshall, N. B. 1971. Explorations in the Life of Fishes, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 336 pp.
Nelson, J. S. 1994. Fishes of the World, 3rd edition. Wiley & Sons, New York. 394 pp.
Norman, J. R. 1975. A History of Fishes, 3rd revised edition by P. H. Greenwood, Halsted Books, London. 351 pp.
Pellegrin, J. 1923. Le poissons des eaux douces de l'Afrique occi-dentale (du Sénégal au Niger). Gouv. Gén l'Afrique Occ. Fr., Pub. Com. d'Etud. Hist. Paris. 373 pp.
Poll, M. 1953. Le poissons d'aquarium du Congo Belge. Bulletins de la Society royale de zoologie d'Anvers 2: 1–48.
Rayner, J. M. V. 1981. Flight adaptations in vertebrates. Symposia of the Zoological Society London 48: 137–172.
Richmond, M. D. 1997. A Guide to the Seashores of Eastern Africa and the Western Indian Ocean Islands. Sida/Department for Research Cooperation, SAREC. Zanzibar, Tanzania. 448 pp.
Teguels, G. G., G. McG. Reid & R. P. King. 1992. Fishes of the Cross River basin (Cameron-Nigeria)}. Taxonomy, zoogeography, ecology, and conservation}. Belgium Royal Museum, Annales Sciences Zoologiques, 266}. 13
Thompson, W. F. & J. B. Thompson. 1919. The spawning of the grunion (Leuresthes tenuis)}. California Fish and Game Commission, Fish. Bull}. 3}. 2
Weihs, D. 1973. The mechanism of rapid starting of slender fish. Biorheology 10: 343–350.
Zottoli, S. J. 1977. Correlation of the startle reflex and Mauthner cell auditory responses in unrestrained goldfish. J. Exp. Biol. 66: 243–254.
Zottoli, S. J. 1978. Comparison of Mauthner cell size in teleosts. J. Comp. Neurol. 178: 741–758.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Saidel, W.M., Strain, G.F. & Fornari, S.K. Characterization of the Aerial Escape Response of the African Butterfly Fish, Pantodon buchholzi Peters. Environmental Biology of Fishes 71, 63–72 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1023/B:EBFI.0000043153.38418.cd
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/B:EBFI.0000043153.38418.cd