Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-m9kch Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-08T12:43:33.928Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Rules required for operating maritime autonomous surface ships from the viewpoint of seafarers

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 February 2022

Toshiyuki Miyoshi ,
Shoji Fujimoto ,
Matthew Rooks ,
Tsukasa Konishi  and
Rika Suzuki
Toshiyuki Miyoshi
Affiliation:
Graduate School of Maritime Sciences, Kobe University, Kobe, Japan
Shoji Fujimoto*
Affiliation:
Graduate School of Maritime Sciences, Kobe University, Kobe, Japan
Matthew Rooks
Affiliation:
Graduate School of Maritime Sciences, Kobe University, Kobe, Japan
Tsukasa Konishi
Affiliation:
Graduate School of Maritime Sciences, Kobe University, Kobe, Japan
Rika Suzuki
Affiliation:
Graduate School of Maritime Sciences, Kobe University, Kobe, Japan
*
*Corresponding author. E-mail: shojif@maritime.kobe-u.ac.jp
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Demonstrations and local tests of several maritime autonomous surface ships (MASS) have recently been carried out. From a technological standpoint, MASS are becoming able to handle actual operations in certain sea areas. Since 2017, the MSC (Maritime Safety Committee) of the IMO (International Maritime Organization) has been discussing legal problems with the Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREGs) with regard to MASS operation. The purpose of this paper is to clarify the rules from the perspective of seafarers, who need to interpret COLREGs when dealing with MASS in ship handling situations on the sea, and also to discuss possible required amendments to COLREGs. This paper attempts to clarify the extent of current interpretations while also taking into account the answers to questionnaires received from 130 pilots, ship captains and navigation officers concerning COLREGs for MASS operation. Given the four common principles of COLREGs, it is considered whether the principles need to be changed with the introduction of MASS from the viewpoint of seafarers.

Keywords

maritime autonomous surface shipCOLREGsgood seamanshiplook-out
Type
Research Article
Information
The Journal of Navigation , Volume 75 , Issue 2 , March 2022 , pp. 384 - 399
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Royal Institute of Navigation

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

AAWA. (2016). Remote and Autonomous Ships. The Next Steps. Available at: https://www.rolls-royce.com/~/media/Files/R/Rolls-Royce/documents/customers/marine/ship-intel/aawa-whitepaper-210616.pdf. [Accessed 18 May 2021].Google Scholar
Allen, C. H. (2012). The seabots are coming here: Should they be treated as ‘vessels’? The Journal of Navigation, 65, 749–752.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beser, F. and Yildirim, T. (2018). COLREGS based path planning and bearing only obstacle avoidance for autonomous unmanned surface vehicles. Procedia Computer Science, 131, 633–640.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Borkowski, P., Pietrzykowski, Z. and Magaj, J. (2021). The algorithm of determining an anti-collision manoeuvre trajectory based on the interpolation of ship's state vector. Sensors, 21(16), 5332.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, S. and Naeem, W. (2012). A rule-based heuristic method for COLREGS-compliant collision avoidance for an unmanned surface vehicle. IFAC Proceedings Volumes, 45(27), 386–391.10.3182/20120919-3-IT-2046.00066CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chircop, A.. (2018). Testing International Legal Regimes: The Advent of Automated Commercial Vessels. German Yearbook of International Law, 60(1), 1–31.10.3790/gyil.60.1.109CrossRefGoogle Scholar
CMI. (2018). CMI International Working Group Position Paper on Unmanned Ships and the International Regulatory Framework. Available at: https://comitemaritime.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/CMI-Position-Paper-on-Unmanned-Ships.pdf. [Accessed 17 May 2021].Google Scholar
Cockcroft, A. N. and Lameijer, J. N. F. (2012). A Guide to the Collision Avoidance Rules. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.Google Scholar
Coito, J. (2021). Maritime autonomous surface ships: New possibilities—and challenges—in ocean law and policy. International Law Studies, 97, 259–306.Google Scholar
Crespo, J. P., Gómez, L. G. and Arias, J. G. (2019). Autonomous shipping and cybersecurity. Ship Science & Technology, 13(25), 19–26.Google Scholar
DMA. (2017). Analysis of Regulatory Barriers to the Use of Autonomous Ships. Final Report. Available at: https://www.dma.dk/Documents/Publikationer/Analysis%20of%20Regulatory%20Barriers%20to%20the%20Use%20of%20Autonomous%20Ships.pdf. [Accessed 6 Sept. 2021].Google Scholar
Fujimoto, S., Kondo, A., Fuchi, M., Konishi, T., Matsumoto, H. and Nishimura, T. (2017). Judging vessel courses via the horizontal distance between two masthead lights. Transactions of Navigation, 2(1), 1–13.Google Scholar
Gault, S., Hazelwood, S. J. and Tettenborn, A. M. (2016). The Law of Collisions at Sea. 14th ed. London: Sweet and Maxwell, Thomson Reuters.Google Scholar
Huang, Y., Chen, L., Chen, P., Negenborn, R. R. and Gelder, P. (2020). Ship collision avoidance methods: state-of-the-art. Safety Science, 121, 451–473.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
IMO. (2017). Scoping exercise proposed on autonomous vessels. MSC98. International Maritime Organization. Available at: https://www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/IMOMediaAccreditation/Pages/MSC-98-preview.aspx. [Accessed 18 May 2021].Google Scholar
IMO. (2018a). IMO takes first steps to address autonomous ships. International Maritime Organization. Available at: http://www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/PressBriefings/Pages/08-MSC-99-MASScoping.aspx. [Accessed 18 May 2021].Google Scholar
Jorgensen, J. (2016). Autonomous Vessels: ABS’ Classification Perspective. Discussion Issues in Technology, Safety and Security for the Marine Board. American Bureau of Shipping. Available at: http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/mb/2016spring/presentations/jorgensen.pdf. [Accessed 6 Sept. 2021].Google Scholar
Kemp, J. F. (1976). Two hundred years of the collision regulations. The Journal of Navigation, 29, 341–349.10.1017/S0373463300039308CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kishimoto, M.. (2017). Kaijyoshototsuyobohoshi gaisetsu (A History of Acts on Preventing Collisions at Sea). Seizando shoten.Google Scholar
Kobe University Graduate School of Maritime Sciences Research Team. (2020). AI wo katsuyo shita hikososen kenkyu no jissenshiken ni seiko (Utilizing AI in Collision Avoidance on a Training Vessel). Available at: http://www.maritime.kobe-u.ac.jp/news/2020/20201211.html. [Accessed 18 May 2021].Google Scholar
Kongsberg. (2020). Automatic ferry enters regular service following world-first crossing with passengers onboard. Available at: https://www.kongsberg.com/maritime/about-us/news-and-media/news-archive/2020/first-adaptive-transit-on-bastofosen-vi/. [Accessed 17 May 2021].Google Scholar
Lu, Y., Niu, H., Savvaris, A. and Tsourdos, A. (2016). Verifying collision avoidance behaviours for unmanned surface vehicles using probabilistic model checking. IFAC-PapersOnLine, 49(23), 127–132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lyu, H. and Yin, Y. (2018). COLREGS - Constrained Real-time path planning for autonomous ships using modified artificial potential fields. The Journal of Navigation, 72, 588–608.10.1017/S0373463318000796CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MASRWG. (2017). Being a Responsible Industry. An Industry Code of Practice. A Voluntary Code Version 1.0. Available at: https://www.maritimeuk.org/media-centre/publications/being-responsible-industry-industry-code-practice/. [Accessed 17 May 2021].Google Scholar
Mei, J. H. and Arshad, M. R. (2017). A smart navigation and collision avoidance approach for autonomous surface vehicle. Indian Journal of Geo-Marine Sciences, 46(12), 2415–2421.Google Scholar
Miyoshi, T., Fujimoto, S. and Rooks, M. (2021). Study of principles in COLREGs and interpretations and amendments COLREGs for maritime autonomous surface ships (MASS). Transactions of Navigation, 6(1), 11–18.Google Scholar
MUNIN. (2016a). Research in Maritime Autonomous Systems Project. Results and Technology Potentials. Available at: http://www.unmanned-ship.org/munin/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/MUNIN-final-brochure.pdf. 19 May 2021. [Accessed 17 May 2021].Google Scholar
MUNIN. (2016b). The Autonomous Ship. Available at: http://www.unmanned-ship.org/munin/about/the-autonomus-ship/. [Accessed 6 Sept. 2021].Google Scholar
Naeem, W., Henrique, S. C. and Hu, L. (2016). A reactive COLREGS-compliant navigation strategy for autonomous maritime navigation. IFAC-PapersOnLine, 49(23), 207–213.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
NFAS. (2017). Definition of Autonomy Levels for Merchant Ships. Norwegian Forum for Autonomous Ships. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327176491_Definition_of_autonomy_levels_for_merchant_ships_Report_from_NFAS_Norwegian_Forum_for_Autonomous_Ships_2017-08-04. [Accessed 19 May 2021].Google Scholar
NFAS. (2020). Definitions for Autonomous Merchant Ships. Norwegian Forum for Autonomous Ships. Available at: https://nfas.autonomous-ship.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/autonom-defs.pdf. [Accessed 6 Sept. 2021].Google Scholar
NOVIMAR. (2018). CCNR proposes definition of levels of automation in inland navigation. Available at: https://novimar.eu/2018/01/30/ccnr-proposes-definition-levels-automation-inland-navigation/. [Accessed 19 May 2021].Google Scholar
NYK. (2020). NYK to participate in crewless maritime autonomous surface ship trial project. Available at: https://www.nyk.com/english/news/2020/20200615_01.html. [Accessed 17 May 2021].Google Scholar
Porathe, T. (2019). Maritime autonomous surface ships (MASS) and the COLREGs: Do we need quantified rules or is “the ordinary practice of seamen” specific enough? TransNav, 13(3), 511–517.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pritchett, P. W. (2015). Ghost ships: Why the law should embrace unmanned vessel technology. Tulane Maritime Law Journal, 40, 197–225.Google Scholar
Ringbom, H. (2019). Regulating autonomous ships—concepts, challenges and precedents. Ocean Development & International Law, 50(2–3), 141-169.10.1080/00908320.2019.1582593CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rolls-Royce. (2018). Rolls-Royce and Finferries demonstrate world's first Fully Autonomous Ferry. Available at: https://www.rolls-royce.com/media/press-releases/2018/03-12-2018-rr-and-finferries-demonstrate-worlds-first-fully-autonomous-ferry.aspx. [Accessed 17 May 2021].Google Scholar
Singh, Y., Sharma, S., Sutton, R., Hatton, D. and Khan, A. (2018). A constrained A* approach towards optimal path planning for an unmanned surface vehicle in a maritime environment containing dynamic obstacles and ocean currents. Ocean Engineering, 169, 187–201.10.1016/j.oceaneng.2018.09.016CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Swain, C. C. (2018). Towards greater certainty for unmanned navigation: A recommended United States military perspective on application of the “Rules of the Road” to unmanned maritime systems. Georgetown Law and Technology Review, 3, 119–161.Google Scholar
Tsushima, K. (1927). Kaijyoshotostuyobohoshi (Changes in Acts on Preventing Collisions at Sea). Kaihokaishi, 12, 63–67.Google Scholar
Umeda, A., Shimizu, E., Minami, K. and Miyoshi, T. (2018). Jidounkosen no jitsugen ni muketa hotekikadai hokokusho. Available at: https://www.jlf.or.jp/assets/work/pdf/kenkyu-no130_houkoku.pdf. [Accessed 19 May 2021].Google Scholar
Wang, Y., Yu, X., Liang, X. and Li, B. (2018). A COLREGS-based obstacle avoidance approach for unmanned surface vehicles. Ocean Engineering, 169, 110–124.10.1016/j.oceaneng.2018.09.012CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wärtsilä. (2017). Wärtsilä successfully tests remote control ship operating capability. Available at: https://www.wartsila.com/media/news/01-09-2017-wartsila-successfully-tests-remote-control-ship-operating-capability. [Accessed 18 May 2021].Google Scholar
Wärtsilä. (2018). World's first autodocking installation successfully tested by Wärtsilä. Available at: https://www.wartsila.com/media/news/26-04-2018-world-s-first-autodocking-installation-successfully-tested-by-wartsila-2169290. [Accessed 18 May 2021].Google Scholar
Zhao, Y., Li, W. and Shi, P. (2016). A real-time collision avoidance learning system for unmanned surface vessels. Neurocomputing, 182, 255–266.10.1016/j.neucom.2015.12.028CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhou, X., Huang, J., Wang, F., Wu, Z. and Liu, Z. (2020). A study of the application barriers to the use of autonomous ships posed by the good seamanship requirement of COLREGs. The Journal of Navigation, 73, 710–725.10.1017/S0373463319000924CrossRefGoogle Scholar