No CrossRef data available.
Article contents
Impacts of invasive alien species on riparian plant communities in South African savanna
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 14 November 2023
Abstract
Biological invasions are a threat to protected areas globally; however, the relative lack of studies quantifying the ecological impacts impairs informed decision-making. We selected three annual alien plants, widespread in the riparian habitats of the Kruger National Park, South Africa: Datura innoxia, Parthenium hysterophorus, and Xanthium strumarium, to examine their potential impacts on riparian plant communities. We identified 12–13 populations for each and placed a pair of invaded and uninvaded plots in each population. Species richness, Shannon diversity, and Pielou evenness were compared between the invaded and uninvaded plots using LMM models, and species composition was compared using ordination. The invaded vegetation showed lower species richness compared to the uninvaded, with the strongest effect observed for P. hysterophorus. The invaded plots also showed lower Shannon diversity and Pielou evenness due to the presence of alien dominants. For all three invaders, the invasion resulted in changes in the composition of native vegetation. Some native plants were more frequent and abundant in the invaded vegetation, possibly due to the habitats created in sandy river beds. The native species richness decreased with increasing invader cover, but the species richness of aliens accompanying the invasive dominants was not negatively affected by their cover. Our results confirmed the negative impact of invasive aliens on native plant diversity, with the most pronounced effect by Parthenium hysterophorus invasions.
Keywords
- Type
- Research Article
- Information
- Copyright
- © The Author(s), 2023. Published by Cambridge University Press
References
Adkins, S and Shabbir, A (2014) Biology, ecology and management of the invasive parthenium weed (Parthenium hysterophorus L.). Pest Management Science 70, 1023–1029.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bacher, S, Blackburn, TM, Essl, F, Jeschke, JM, Genovesi, P, Heikkilä, J, Jones, G, Keller, R, Kenis, M, Kueffer, C, Martinou, AF, Nentwig, W, Pergl, J, Pyšek, P, Rabitsch, W, Richardson, DM, Roy, HE, Saul, W-C, Scalera, R, Vilà, M, Wilson, JRU and Kumschick, S (2018) Socioeconomic impact classification of alien taxa (SEICAT). Methods in Ecology and Evolution 9, 159–168.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bajwa, AA, Farooq, M, Nawaz, A, Yadav, L, Chauhan, BS and Adkins, S (2019) Impact of invasive plant species on the livelihoods of farming households: evidence from Parthenium hysterophorus invasion in rural Punjab, Pakistan. Biological Invasions 21, 3285–3304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blackburn, TM, Pyšek, P, Bacher, S, Carlton, JT, Duncan, RP, Jarošík, V, Wilson, JRU and Richardson, DM (2011) A proposed unified framework for biological invasions. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 26, 333–339.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beater, MMT, Garner, RD and Witkowski, ETF (2008) Impacts of clearing invasive alien plants from 1995 to 2005 on vegetation structure, invasion intensity and ground cover in a temperate to subtropical riparian ecosystem. South African Journal of Botany 74, 495–507.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braga, RR, Gómez-Aparicio, L, Heger, T, Vitule, JR and Jeschke, JM (2018) Structuring evidence for invasional meltdown: broad support but with biases and gaps. Biological Invasions 20, 923–936.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brondizio, E, Settele, J, Díaz, S and Ngo, H (2019) Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. Bonn: IPBES Secretariat.Google Scholar
Brunel, S, Panetta, D, Fried, G, Kriticos, D, Prasad, R, Lansink, AO, Shabbir, A and Yaacoby, T (2014) Preventing a new invasive alien plant from entering and spreading in the Euro-Mediterranean region: the case study of Parthenium hysterophorus. Bulletin OEPP 44, 479–489.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chhogyel, N, Kumar, L and Bajgai, Y (2021) Invasion status and impacts of parthenium weed (Parthenium hysterophorus) in West-Central region of Bhutan. Biological Invasions 23, 2763–2779.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chytrý, M, Jarošík, V, Pyšek, P, Hájek, O, Knollová, I, Tichý, L and Danihelka, J (2008) Separating habitat invasibility by alien plants from the actual level of invasion. Ecology 89, 1541–1553.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chytrý, M, Maskell, LC, Pino, J, Pyšek, P, Vilà, M, Font, X and Smart, SM (2008) Habitat invasions by alien plants: a quantitative comparison among Mediterranean, subcontinental and oceanic regions of Europe. Journal of Applied Ecology 45, 448–458.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Čuda, J, Skálová, H and Pyšek, P (2020) Spread of Impatiens glandulifera from riparian habitats to forests and its associated impacts: insights from a new invasion. Weed Research 60, 8–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Delabye, S, Gaona, FP, Potocký, P, Foxcroft, LC, Halamová, P, Hejda, M, MacFadyen, S, Pyšková, K, Sedláček, O, Staňková, M, Storch, D, Pyšek, P and Tropek, R (2022) Thirteen moth species (Lepidoptera, Erebidae, Noctuidae) newly recorded in South Africa, with comments on their distribution. Biodiversity Data Journal 10, e89729.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
du Toit, JT, Rogers, KH and Biggs, HC (eds) (2003) The Kruger Experience: Ecology and Management of Savanna Heterogeneity. Washington, DC: Island Press, 519 pp.Google Scholar
Esler, KJ, Holmes, PM, Richardson, DM and Witkowski, ETF (2008) Riparian vegetation management in landscapes invaded by alien plants: insights from South Africa. South African Journal of Botany 74, 397–400.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Essl, F, Bacher, S, Blackburn, TM, Booy, O, Brundu, G, Brunel, S, Cardoso, A-C, Eschen, R, Gallardo, B, Galil, B, García-Berthou, E, Genovesi, P, Groom, Q, Harrower, C, Hulme, PE, Katsanevakis, S, Kenis, M, Kühn, I, Kumschick, S, Martinou, K, Nentwig, W, O’Flynn, C, Pagad, S, Pergl, J, Pyšek, P, Rabitsch, W, Richardson, DM, Roques, A, Roy, H, Scalera, R, Schindler, S, Seebens, H, Vanderhoeven, S, Vilà, M, Wilson, JRU, Zenetos, A and Jeschke, JM (2015) Crossing frontiers in tackling pathways of biological invasions. BioScience 65, 769–782.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foxcroft, LC and Freitag-Ronaldson, S (2007) Seven decades of institutional learning: managing alien plant invasions in the Kruger National Park, South Africa. Oryx 41, 160–167.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foxcroft, LC, Novoa, A, Foord, S, Thwala, T, Munyai, C and Dippenaar-Schoeman, A (2022) The impacts of Parthenium hysterophorus on ants, spiders and soil characteristics in Kruger National Park. In Linder, M (ed.), Biological Invasions in a Changing World. Book of Abstracts. Tartu: Estonian Naturalists’ Society, pp. 55.Google Scholar
Foxcroft, LC, Jarošík, V, Pyšek, P, Richardson, DM and Rouget, M (2011) Protected-area boundaries as filters of plant invasions. Conservation Biology 25, 400–405.Google ScholarPubMed
Foxcroft, LC, Moodley, D, Nichols, G and Pyšek, P (2023) Naturalized and alien plants of the Kruger National Park, South Africa: naturalization, invasion and future threats. Biological Invasions 25, 3049–3064.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foxcroft, LC, Parsons, M, McLoughlin, CA and Richardson, DM (2008) Patterns of alien plant distribution in a river landscape following an extreme flood. South African Journal of Botany 74, 463–475.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foxcroft, LC, Pyšek, P, Richardson, DM, Genovesi, P and MacFadyen, S (2017) Plant invasion science in protected areas: progress and priorities. Biological Invasions 19, 1353–1378.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foxcroft, LC, Richardson, DM, Rejmánek, M and Pyšek, P (2010) Alien plant invasions in tropical and sub-tropical savannas: patterns, processes and prospects. Biological Invasions 12, 3913–3933.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foxcroft, LC, Richardson, DM, Rouget, M and MacFadyen, S (2009) Patterns of alien plant distribution at multiple spatial scales in a large national park: implications for ecology, management and monitoring. Diversity and Distributions 15, 367–378.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foxcroft, LC, Rouget, M and Richardson, DM (2007) Risk assessment of riparian plant invasions into protected areas. Conservation Biology 21, 412–421.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Foxcroft, LC, Spear, D, van Wilgen, NJ and McGeoch, MA (2019) Assessing the association between pathways of alien plant invaders and their impacts in protected areas. NeoBiota 43, 1–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gallardo, B, Aldridge, DC, González-Moreno, P, Pergl, J, Pizarro, M, Pyšek, P, Thuiller, W, Yesson, C and Vilà, M (2017) Protected areas offer refuge from invasive species spreading under climate change. Global Change Biology 23, 5331–5343.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hejda, M, Čuda, J, Pyšková, K, Zambatis, G, Foxcroft, LC, MacFadyen, S, Storch, D, Tropek, R and Pyšek, P (2022) Water availability, bedrock, disturbance by herbivores, and climate determine plant diversity in South-African savanna. Scientific Reports 12, 338.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hejda, M, Pyšek, P and Jarošík, V (2009) Impact of invasive plants on the species richness, diversity and composition of invaded communities. Journal of Ecology 97, 393–403.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holm, LG, Doll, J, Holm, E, Pancho, J and Herberger, J (1997) World Weeds: Natural Histories and Distribution. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1129 pp.Google Scholar
Hood, WG and Naiman, RJ (2000) Vulnerability of riparian zones to invasion by exotic vascular plants. Plant Ecology 148, 105–114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hulme, PE, Bacher, S, Kenis, M, Klotz, S, Kühn, I, Minchin, D, Nentwig, W, Olenin, S, Panov, V, Pergl, J, Pyšek, P, Roques, A, Sol, D, Solarz, W and Vilà, M (2008) Grasping at the routes of biological invasions: a framework for integrating pathways into policy. Journal of Applied Ecology 45, 403–414.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hulme, PE, Pyšek, P, Pergl, J, Jarošík, V, Schaffner, U and Vilà, M (2014) Greater focus needed on alien plant impacts in protected areas. Conservation Letters 7, 459–466.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jarošík, V, Pyšek, P, Foxcroft, LC, Richardson, DM, Rouget, M and MacFadyen, S (2011) Predicting incursion of plant invaders into Kruger National Park, South Africa: the interplay of general drivers and species-specific factors. PLoS ONE 6, e28711.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
KNP (2018) Kruger National Park. Park Management Plan 2018–2028. Skukuza: South African National Parks, 259 pp.Google Scholar
Koenig, R (2009) Unleashing an army to repair alien-ravaged ecosystems. Science 325, 562–563.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kumschick, S, Bacher, S, Bertolino, S, Blackburn, TM, Evans, T, Roy, HE and Smith, K (2020) Appropriate uses of EICAT protocol, data and classifications. NeoBiota 62, 193–212.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lepš, J and Šmilauer, P (2014) Multivariate Analysis of Ecological Data Using CANOCO 5. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 362 pp.Google Scholar
MacFadyen, S, Hui, C, Verburg, PH and Van Teeffelen, AJA (2016) Quantifying spatiotemporal drivers of environmental heterogeneity in Kruger National Park, South Africa. Landscape Ecology 31, 2013–2029.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Magurran, A (2004) Measuring Biological Diversity. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 256 pp.Google Scholar
Matzrafi, M, Raz, H, Rubin, B, Yaacoby, T and Eizenberg, H (2021) Distribution and biology of the invasive weed Parthenium hysterophorus L. in Israel. Frontiers in Agronomy 3, 639991.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milton, SJ and Dean, WRJ (2010) Plant invasions in arid areas: special problems and solutions, a South African perspective. Biological Invasions 12, 3935–3948.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morris, TL, Witkowski, ETF and Coetzee, JA (2008) Initial response of riparian plant community structure to clearing of invasive alien plants in Kruger National Park, South Africa. South African Journal of Botany 74, 485–494.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mueller-Dombois, D and Ellenberg, H (1974) Aims and Methods of Vegetation Ecology. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 547 pp.Google Scholar
Novoa, A, Foxcroft, LC, Keet, JH, Pyšek, P and Le Roux, JJ (2021) The invasive cactus Opuntia stricta creates fertility islands in African savannas and benefits from those created by native trees. Scientific Reports 11, 20748.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pielou, EC (1966) The measurement of diversity in different types of biological collection. Journal of Theoretical Biology 13, 131–144.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Planty-Tabacchi, A-M, Tabacchi, E, Naiman, RJ, Deferrari, C and Decamps, H (1996) Invasibility of species-rich communities in riparian zones. Conservation Biology 10, 598–607.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pooley, E (1998) A Field Guide to Wild Flowers of Kwazulu-Natal and the Eastern Region. Durban: Natal Flora Publications Trust, 630 pp.Google Scholar
Pyšek, P, Bacher, S, Chytrý, M, Jarošík, V, Wild, J, Celesti-Grapow, L, Gassó, N, Kenis, M, Lambdon, PW, Nentwig, W, Pergl, J, Roques, A, Sádlo, J, Solarz, W, Vilà, M and Hulme, PE (2010) Contrasting patterns in the invasions of European terrestrial and freshwater habitats by alien plants, insects and vertebrates. Global Ecology and Biogeography 19, 317–331.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pyšek, P, Hejda, M, Čuda, J, Zambatis, G, Pyšková, K, MacFadyen, S, Storch, D, Tropek, R and Foxcroft, LC (2020a) Into the great wide open: do alien plants spread from rivers to dry savanna in the Kruger National Park? NeoBiota 60, 61–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pyšek, P, Hulme, PE, Simberloff, D, Bacher, S, Blackburn, TM, Carlton, JT, Dawson, W, Essl, F, Foxcroft, LC, Genovesi, P, Jeschke, JM, Kühn, , Liebhold, AM, Mandrak, NE, Meyerson, LA, Pauchard, A, Pergl, J, Roy, HE, Seebens, H, van Kleunen, M, Vilà, M, Wingfield, MJ and Richardson, DM (2020b) Scientists’ warning on invasive alien species. Biological Reviews 95, 1511–1534.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pyšek, P, Jarošík, V and Kučera, T (2003) Inclusion of native and alien species in temperate nature reserves: an historical study from Central Europe. Conservation Biology 17, 1414–1424.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pyšek, P, Pergl, J, Essl, F, Lenzner, B, Dawson, W, Kreft, H, Weigelt, P, Winter, M, Kartesz, J, Nishino, M, Antonova, LA, Barcelona, JF, Cabezas, FJ, Cárdenas, D, Cárdenas-Toro, J, Castaño, N, Chacón, E, Chatelain, C, Dullinger, S, Ebel, AL, Figueiredo, E, Fuentes, N, Genovesi, P, Groom, QJ, Henderson, L, Inderjit, , Kupriyanov, A, Masciadri, S, Maurel, N, Meerman, J, Morozova, O, Moser, D, Nickrent, D, Nowak, PM, Pagad, S, Patzelt, A, Pelser, PB, Seebens, H, Shu, W, Thomas, J, Velayos, M, Weber, E, Wieringa, JJ, Baptiste, MP and van Kleunen, M (2017) Naturalized alien flora of the world: species diversity, taxonomic and phylogenetic patterns, geographic distribution and global hotspots of plant invasion. Preslia 89, 203–274.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pyšková, K, Novoa, A, Čuda, J, Foxcroft, LC, Hejda, M and Pyšek, P (2022a) How can we measure the impact of invasive plants on large herbivores in an African savanna? In Linder, M (ed.), Biological Invasions in a Changing World. Book of Abstracts. Tartu: Estonian Naturalists’ Society, pp. 121.Google Scholar
Pyšková, K, Pyšek, P and Foxcroft, LC (2022b) Introduction and invasion of common myna (Acridotheres tristis) in Kruger National Park, South Africa: still time for action? Biological Invasions 24, 2291–2300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
R Development Core Team (2013) R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. Vienna: R Foundation for Statistical Computing. Available online: http://www.R-project.org.Google Scholar
Raudenbush, SW and Bryk, AS (2002) Hierarchical Linear Models: Applications and Data Analysis Methods, 2nd edn. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications Inc., 512 pp.Google Scholar
Richardson, DM, Holmes, PM, Esler, KJ, Galatowitsch, SM, Stromberg, JC, Kirkman, SP, Pyšek, P and Hobbs, RJ (2007) Riparian vegetation: degradation, alien plant invasions, and restoration prospects. Diversity and Distributions 13, 126–139.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Richardson, DM, Pyšek, P, Rejmánek, M, Barbour, MG, Panetta, FD and West, CJ (2000) Naturalization and invasion of alien plants: concepts and definitions. Diversity and Distributions 6, 93–107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robertson, MP, Harris, KR, Coetzee, JA, Foxcroft, LC, Dippenaar-Schoeman, AS and van Rensburg, BJ (2011) Assessing local scale impacts of Opuntia stricta (Cactaceae) invasion on beetle and spider diversity in Kruger National Park, South Africa. African Zoology 46, 205–223.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roy, HE, Pauchard, A, Stoett, P, Renard Truong, T, Bacher, S, Galil, BS, Hulme, PE, Ikeda, T, Sankaran, KV, McGeoch, MA, Meyerson, LA, Nuñez, MA, Ordonez, A, Rahlao, SJ, Schwindt, E, Seebens, H, Sheppard, AW and Vandvik, V (2023) IPBES Invasive Alien Species Assessment: Summary for Policymakers (Version 2). Zenodo. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.8314303
CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmidt, E, Lötter, M and McCleland, W (2002) Trees and Shrubs of Mpumalanga and Kruger National Park. Johannesburg: Jacana Media, 702 pp.Google Scholar
Seebens, H, Bacher, S, Blackburn, TM, Capinha, C, Dawson, W, Dullinger, S, Genovesi, P, Hulme, PE, van Kleunen, M, Kühn, I, Jeschke, JM, Lenzner, B, Liebhold, AM, Pattison, Z, Pergl, J, Pyšek, P, Winter, M and Essl, F (2021) Projecting the continental accumulation of alien species through to 2050. Global Change Biology 27, 970–982.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shackleton, RT, Foxcroft, LC, Pyšek, P, Wood, LE and Richardson, DM (2020) Assessing biological invasions in protected areas after 30 years: revisiting nature reserves targeted by the 1980s SCOPE programme. Biological Conservation 243, 108424.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sibiya, T (2019) Riparian Plant Community Change and Alien Plant Invasions Following Geomorphological Change in the Sabie River, Kruger National Park, South Africa. MSc. Thesis, Stellenbosch University.Google Scholar
Simberloff, D and Von Holle, B (1999) Positive interactions of nonindigenous species: invasional meltdown? Biological Invasions 1, 21–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Singh, HP, Batish, DR, Pandher, JK and Kohli, RK (2003) Assessment of allelopathic properties of Parthenium hysterophorus residues. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 95, 537–541.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stohlgren, TJ, Chong, GW, Schell, LD, Rimar, KA, Otsuki, Y, Lee, M, Kalkhan, MA and Villa, CA (2002) Assessing vulnerability to invasion by nonnative plant species at multiple spatial scales. Environmental Management 29, 566–577.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stohlgren, TJ, Jarnevitch, C and Chong, GW (2006) Scale and plant invasions: a theory of biotic acceptance. Preslia 78, 405–426.Google Scholar
Timsina, B, Shrestha, BB, Rokaya, MB and Münzbergová, Z (2011) Impact of Parthenium hysterophorus L. invasion on plant species composition and soil properties of grassland communities in Nepal. Flora 206, 233–240.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van der Laan, M, Reinhardt, CF, Belz, RG, Truter, WF, Foxcroft, LC and Hurle, K (2008) Interference potential of the perennial grasses Eragrostis curvula, Panicum maximum and Digitaria eriantha with Parthenium hysterophorus
. Tropical Grasslands 42, 88–95.Google Scholar
van der Maarel, E (1979) Transformation of cover-abundance values in phytosociology and its effects on community similarity. Vegetatio 38, 97–114.Google Scholar
van der Walt, R (2009) Wild Flowers of the Limpopo Valley. Musina: Retha van der Walt, 394 pp.Google Scholar
van Kleunen, M, Dawson, W, Essl, F, Pergl, J, Winter, M, Weber, E, Kreft, H, Weigelt, P, Kartesz, J, Nishino, M, Antonova, LA, Barcelona, JF, Cabezas, FJ, Cárdenas, D, Cárdenas-Toro, J, Castaño, N, Chacón, E, Chatelain, C, Ebel, AL, Figueiredo, E, Fuentes, N, Groom, QJ, Henderson, L, Inderjit, , Kupriyanov, A, Masciadri, S, Meerman, J, Morozova, O, Moser, D, Nickrent, DL, Patzelt, A, Pelser, PB, Baptiste, MP, Poopath, M, Schulze, M, Seebens, H, Shu, W, Thomas, J, Velayos, M, Wieringa, JJ and Pyšek, P (2015) Global exchange and accumulation of non-native plants. Nature 525, 100–103.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Kleunen, M, Pyšek, P, Dawson, W, Essl, F, Kreft, H, Pergl, J, Weigelt, P, Stein, A, Dullinger, S, König, C, Lenzner, B, Maurel, N, Moser, D, Seebens, H, Kartesz, J, Nishino, M, Aleksanyan, A, Ansong, M, Antonova, LA, Barcelona, JF, Breckle, SW, Brundu, G, Cabezas, FJ, Cárdenas, D, Cárdenas-Toro, J, Castaño, N, Chacón, E, Chatelain, C, Conn, B, de Sá Dechoum, M, Dufour-Dror, J-M, Ebel, A-L, Figueiredo, E, Fragman-Sapir, O, Fuentes, N, Groom, QJ, Henderson, L, Inderjit, , Jogan, N, Krestov, P, Kupriyanov, A, Masciadri, S, Meerman, J, Morozova, O, Nickrent, D, Nowak, A, Patzelt, A, Pelser, PB, Shu, W-S, Thomas, J, Uludag, A, Velayos, M, Verkhosina, A, Villaseñor, JL, Weber, E, Wieringa, J, Yazlık, A, Zeddam, A, Zykova, E and Winter, M (2019) The Global naturalized alien flora (GloNAF) database. Ecology 100, e02542.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Oudtshoorn, F (2012) Guide to Grasses of Southern Africa, 3rd edn. Pretoria: Briza publications, 288 pp.Google Scholar
van Wilgen, BW, Fill, JM, Govender, N and Foxcroft, LC (2017) An assessment of the evolution, costs and effectiveness of alien plant control operations in Kruger National Park, South Africa. NeoBiota 35, 35–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weber, E (2017) Invasive Plant Species of the World: A Reference Guide to Environmental Weeds, 2nd ed. Wallingford: CABI.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Witkowski, ETF and Garner, RD (2008) Seed production, seed bank dynamics, resprouting and long-term response to clearing of the alien invasive Solanum mauritianum in a temperate to subtropical riparian ecosystem. South African Journal of Botany 74, 476–484.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hejda et al. supplementary material
Table S1
File
17 KB