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The Economic Activities of Foreigners in Egypt, 1920–1950: From Millet to Haute Bourgeoisie

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 June 2009

Robert Tignor
Robert Tignor
Affiliation:
Princeton University
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Extract

Lord Cromer, British Consul-General in Egypt and virtual ruler of the country, was fond of arguing that Egypt could never become a homogeneous, unitary nation state, like Britain or France. Because of its location astride the Suez Canal and at the meeting point of Africa and Asia, the country, Cromer believed, would always attract large foreign populations and would be of vital importance to foreign powers. Its institutions must take account of diverse interests and peoples. To be sure Cromer used this vision self-seekingly, denying Egyptian nationalists many of their demands for increased self-government. But he had to heed the foreigners in Egypt, for they had become an influential group in the nineteenth century. A booming economy, peace and political stability, uninterrupted except for the short-lived ‘Urābī revolt (1879–1882), the fashioning of European law courts, called the Mixed Tribunals, administering French law through foreign judges, and then the presence of British troops and administrators from 1882 onwards all conspired to make Egypt seem an attractive Middle Eastern country to British, French, Belgian, Italian, Greek, Armenian, and Syrian immigrants.

Type
Ethnic Elites
Information
Comparative Studies in Society and History , Volume 22 , Issue 3 , July 1980 , pp. 416 - 449
Copyright
Copyright © Society for the Comparative Study of Society and History 1980

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References

1 Interview with Henry Michael Barker, July 9, 1977.

2 In some cases it is difficult to determine whether an individual was a foreign resident or a foreigner. A good example is Baron Édouard Empain who built a spacious residence in Egypt and spent much time there. His sons resided in the country. Yet the Empains had world-wide economic holdings and spent much time out of Egypt. See Duchesne, Albert, “Héliopolis, création d'Édouard Empain en plein désert. Une page de la présence Beige en Égypte,” Africa-Tervuren, pp. 113–20,Google Scholar and the biographical notice in the Académie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres, et les Beaux-Arts de Belgique, Biographie nationak, Supplément, tome 6 (Brussels, 1967), pp. 266–70.Google Scholar

3 Malek, Anwar Abdel, Egypt, Military Society (New York, 1968)Google Scholar and Riad, Hassan, L'Éypte Nasserienne (Paris, 1964).Google Scholar

4 I do not mean to exaggerate the importance of the haute bourgeoisie or the joint stock companies. We need to know more about smaller artisanal and mercantile activities. Artisans were still important in Egypt at the time of World War I as the Report of the Commission on Commerce and Industry pointed out. Small retail shops and traders were located throughout Egypt, trading locally made items and also facilitating the import-export trade by “bulking” commodities from small cultivators and “breaking” products from large import houses. In this study, unfortunately, I have little to say about these men and women.

5 See especially Landes, David, Bankers and Pashas: International Finance and Economic Imperialism in Egypt (Cambridge, 1958)Google Scholar and (Cairo, 1960), pp. 197–302.

6 These figures are taken from Égypte, Ministère des Finances, Département de la Statis-tique Générate, Statistique des sociétés anonymes par actions, travaillant principalement en Égypte au 31 décembre, 1925 (Cairo, 1928), pp. 318–19.Google Scholar The total capitalization figures include the capitalization of the Suez Canal Company (£E16,823,599). In many financial studies this company is excluded on the grounds of not being sufficiently involved in the internal economic life of Egypt. Capitalization is measured as the paid-up nominal capital plus debentures. It does not include reserves and loans. The joint stock companies treated are those deemed to be doing a primary amount of their business in Egypt.

7 Two large firms engaged in this type of activity were the Kafr el-Zayat Cotton Company and the Société General de Pressage et de Dépots.

8 See Owen, E. R. J., “Lord Cromer and the Development of Egyptian Industry, 1883-1907,” Middle Eastern Studies 2 (07, 1966): 282–301.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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13 Landau, Jacob M., Jews in Nineteenth Century Egypt (New York, 1969), p. 4.Google Scholar

14 Biographical data on wealthy Jewish families come from a variety of sources. See Annuaire des Juifs d‘Egypte et du Proche Orient (Cairo, 1942),Google Scholar Landau, Jews in Nineteenth Century Egypt, (Cairo, 1904), and Wright, Arnold, Twentieth Century Impressions of Egypt (London, 1909).Google Scholar

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25 Ed. Papasian, , L‘Égypte économique etfinancière (Cairo, 1923).Google Scholar

26 The biographical data have been collated from the sources mentioned in footnote 14.

27 Israel, April 6, 1937.

28 S. Akerib interview.

29 Wright, , Twentieth Century Impressions, p. 321.Google Scholar

30 Ibid., p. 362.

31 See the British consular file on the Menasce family in PRO FO141/655 f 11469, especially C. F. Ryder, Department of Public Security to Chancery, April 11, 1920. The British officials made a close investigation of the Menasce family antecedents because the family property had been sequestrated during World War I when the Menasce family had acquired Hungarian nationality. The Menasces were appealing against the sequestration ruling.

32 Interview with Max Harari, November 4, 1977, and typescript note on Sir Victor Harari by his grandson Paul Rolo.

33 There were some notable exceptions, like Ralph Harari and members of the Mosseri family, but all of my Jewish informants stressed this point.

34 Landau, , Jews in Nineteenth Century Egypt, p. 21. Landau states that the Qattāwīs had Austro-Hungarian status, but they must also have been Egyptian nationals or they would not have been permitted to serve on the board of Bank Misr.Google Scholar

35 Belgium, , Recueil consulaire contenant les rapports commerciaux des Agents Beiges a l'Étranger, Agence et Consulat Général en Égypte, Rapport, by Maskens, L., 1906, Vol. 134, p. 80.Google Scholar

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40 Dumont, Georges H., La Vie quotidienne en Belgique sous le règne de Léopold II, 1865-1909 (Paris, 1974), p. 53.Google Scholar

41 Duchesne, , “Héliopolis, création d'Édouard Empain en plein désert,” Africa-Tervuren, pp. 113–120.Google Scholar

42 This information comes from Recueil financier, 1919, and Papasian, L'Égypte économiqueet financière. Jose Allard was on the board of the Compagnie Immobiliere d'Égypte and the Société Belge Égyptienne de l'Ezbekieh; Maurice Despret on the board of Sociéte´ Anonymedes Tramways du Caire and Tramways d'Alexandrie; Frédéric Jacobs, Caisse Hypothécaire d'Égypte, Société Agricole de Kafr el-Dawar, and Société Générale Égyptienne pour l'Agri-culture et le Commerce; Auguste de la Hault, Société Anonyme des Chemins de Fer de la Basse Egypte and Société Anonyme des Tramways du Caire; and Leon van den Bosch, Compagnie Agricole du Nil, Societe Agricole de Kafr el-Dawar, and Société Generate Égyptienne pour l'Agriculture et le Commerce.

43 On Naus see especially , Vol. 3, No. 27, October, 1938, p.20 and Informateur, September 28, 1938.

44 de Saint-Omar, Henry, Les Enterprises beiges en Égypte: rapport sur la situation écono-mique des sociétés beiges et belge-égyptienne fonctionnant en Égypte (Brussels, 1907), p. 69ff.Google Scholar

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48 For Ahmad Amin Yahya see lnformateur, April 10, 1936 and April 23, 1948.

49 Politi, , L'Égypte de 1914 à Suez, p. 122.Google Scholar

50 Égypte Industrielle, vol. 1, 1925, p. 21.Google Scholar

51 Ibid., vol. 24, no. 5, May, 1948, pp. 30–32.

52 Ibid., vol. 11, no. 9, May 1, 1935, p. 49.

53 Bulletin Commercial, 09 10, 1922.Google Scholar

54 On Levi see Annuaire des Juifs d'Égypte et Proche Orient, 1942, p. 245.Google Scholar

55 La Revue d'Égypte Economique et Financiere, vol. 1, no. 1, 03 10, 1927.Google Scholar

56 No. 277 Lloyd to Chamberlain, May 6, 1927, PRO FO 371/12388 f 1353.

57 There was also a fear of rapid-paced industrialization. Sidqī called forced industrializa-tion “une oeuvre nefaste.” Egypte industrielle, vol. 7, nos. 2 and 3, 02–03, 1931, p. 74.Google Scholar

58 See especially the arguments marshalled by Gaddi, L. and Levi, I. G., “Observations générates sur le nouveau tarif douanier,” Égypte contemporaine, Nos. 133-134, 02–03, 1932, pp. 200–39.Google Scholar

59 See the speech by Sidqī in the hall of Mixed Tribunals as reported in al-Siyāsa al-Usbūīya, march 27, 1926.Google Scholar

60 Égypte industrielle, vol. 9, no. 6, 03 15, 1933, p. 6.Google Scholar

61 Ibid., vol. 15, no. 5, March 1, 1939, p. 29.

62 In a speech in 1939 Sidqi spoke of the need to offer “a liberal welcome” for foreign capital and skilled foreigners. Ibid., vol. 15, no. 8, April 15, 1939, p. 30.

63 Égypte Industrielle kept a watchful eye on labor proposals. Its most comprehensive articles are to be found in vol. 2, no. 2, 1928, pp. 35–45; vol. 6, no. 8, December, 1930, pp. 77–78; vol. U, no. 6, March 15, 1935, pp. 31–34; vol. 11, no. 13, November 1, 1935, pp. 33ff; vol. 18, no. 1, January, 1943, pp. 19–22; and vol. 19, March 24, 1945, pp. 3–5.

64 Ibid., vol. 6, no. 8, December, 1930, pp. 77–78.

65 Several Egyptian historians have been investigating the rise of the Egyptian commercial and industrial bourgeoisie and its attitudes toward the large landholders. The articles by ‘Abdal-'Azīm Ramadān and Mahmūd Mutawallī in the journal al-Kātib for the years 1971 and 1973 are to be especially recommended.

66 Égypte industrielle, vol. 11, no. 6, 03 15, 1935, p. 31.Google Scholar

67 Speech by I. G. Levi, “L'Élaboration du droit social égyptien,” ibid., vol. 19, no. 2, 1943, pp. 19–32.

68 Interview with Cesar Douek and his wife.

69 Interview with Christian Ayoub, December 29, 1977.

70 Interview with Mary Keeley, November 5, 1977.

71 Interview with Andreas Nomikos, January 23, 1978.

72 Interview with Argine Choremi, July 21, 1977.

73 Interview with Charles Rolo, October 7, 1977, and Max Harari, November 4, 1977.

74 Interview with John Brinton, July 6, 1977.

75 Samuel, Sydney Montagu, Jewish Life in the East (London, 1881), p. 2.Google Scholar

76 Ibid., p. 10.

77 Interviews with Andreas Nomikos and Christian Ayoub.

78 See the biographical notices in Le Mondain égyptien for any year after World War II.

79 Interviews with Max Harari, Charles Rolo, Christian Ayoub, and Andreas Nomikos.

80 Interview with Max Harari.

81 Interview with Charles Rolo.

82 Interview with Christian Ayoub and Andreas Nomikos.

83 Interviews with Andreas Nomikos and Argine Choremi.

84 Interview with Christian Ayoub.

85 One should consult especially the pro-Zionist newspaper published in Egypt during the interwar years. It was called Israel.

86 Landshut, S. in his Jewish Communities in the Muslim Countries of the Middle East: A Survey (London, 1950) estimated that of the approximately 75,000 Jews living in Egypt as many as 40,000 were stateless. Thirty thousand were foreign nationals and 5000 possessedEgyptian nationality.Google Scholar

87 Times, November 18, 1960, obituary.

88 Interview with Argine Choremi.

89 PRO FO 141/655 f 11469.

90 Henry Michael Barker, “Two Centuries in the Levant: The Barkers of Alexandria,” a typescript kindly lent by the author and based on newspaper cuttings and letters.

91 Politis, , L'Hellénisme el I'Égypte Moderne, Vol. 2, p. 312,Google Scholar and Politi, Elie, Annuaire des Sociéte´s egyptiennes par actions (Cairo, 1931), pp. 143–145.Google Scholar

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