Contemplating cycling to work: Attitudes and perceptions in different stages of change

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2006.09.002Get rights and content

Abstract

In 1996 the UK government introduced the National Cycle Strategy which aimed to double the number of cycling trips by the end of 2002 and double them again by 2012. So far, however, these targets have not been met. The House of Commons ascribes this to ‘a fundamental lack of commitment to cycling on an individual, regional and national level’. This paper addresses the individual level by examining the views of commuters in different stages of change as distinguished by Prochaska’s model [Prochaska, J.O., DiClemente, C.C., 1984. The Transtheoretical Approach: Crossing Traditional Boundaries of Change. Dow Jones/Irwin, Homewood IL]. This model views behaviour change as a process rather than an event. Two studies were conducted amongst university staff and students: a survey study and an action study. The studies showed that as people progress from precontemplation to action their attitudes towards cycling become more positive and their perceptions of various personal and external barriers change. This suggests that different strategies are necessary to move people in different stages of change to action and maintenance. At the moment, it seems that regular cyclists form a very small minority of people who will cycle under most circumstances simply because they like cycling. The majority of people have never contemplated cycling. There is, however, also a group of people who would like to cycle and could be persuaded to cycle under the right circumstances.

Introduction

The bicycle is one of the most sustainable forms of transport. Bicycles have a low energy consumption, they bring health to their users and do not damage the health of others. They are relatively fast over short distances, and they provide a reliable and affordable form of transport for most sectors of the population (Lumsdon and Tolley, 2001). However, cycling is not considered an alternative by many, especially in the South East of the UK, where routes are hilly and there are few segregated cycle paths. But, some people do cycle. They will cycle in rain and sunshine, up and down hills along cycle paths as well as badly congested roads.

This paper examines who cycles and why in order to determine how more people can be persuaded to cycle. The research was conducted in the UK where cycling is fairly uncommon. In Britain about 2% of all journeys are by bicycle. This is slightly higher in the area where this research was conducted (8%; SCC, 2003). However, there does appear to be more potential for cycling in Britain. Almost ninety percent of the cycle journeys made in Britain are less than 5 miles long. But, out of all the journeys of less than 5 miles only 2% are cycled (38% are walked, 51% are made by car and 8% by public transport; DTLR, 2001).

This paper specifically examines the daily commute to work. In Britain, 40% of cycling journeys are for work and business (DTLR, 2001). About 3% of all work journeys are made by bicycle. In recent years more and more attention is being given to cycling as an alternative mode of transport for the daily commute to work. Related to the daily commute, many organisations in Britain have introduced or are in the process of introducing green travel plans. For instance, as part of a green travel plan the University of Surrey (where this research was conducted) has increased parking charges and restricted the availability of parking permits to those who live within 2 miles of the University. At the same time it has provided new cycle facilities (cycle lanes, cycle parking, showers, etc.) as well as new bus routes. Moreover, Surrey County Council aims to promote cycling by expanding the existing cycle network from 470 km in 2001 to 4000 km in 2016 (SCC, 2003).

In 1996 the UK government introduced the National Cycle Strategy which aimed to double the number of cycling trips by the end of 2002 (based on 1996 figures) and double them again by 2012. However, in May 2000 the targets were softened to increasing cycling by 6% of all journeys by 2010 (Transport 2000,). According to Lumsdon and Tolley (2001) the failure to reach the targets may have been caused by the slower than anticipated adoption of cycling strategies by local authorities. The House of Commons Environment, Transport and Regional affairs committee (2001), however, ascribes it to a fundamental lack of commitment to cycling, which can be found on a national, regional and an individual level.

Some studies have shown that improved cycle facilities can lead to an increase in cycle trips (Martens, in press, Wardman et al., in press). Moreover, cyclists appear to be willing to cycle longer distances to avoid unsafe routes Tilahun et al. (in press). However, others suggest that while improved cycling facilities can make cycling safer (McClintock and Cleary, 1996, Krizek and Roland, 2005) they do not necessarily lead to more cycling (Davies et al., 2001, Welleman, 1997), especially not amongst those who do not usually cycle (Bergström and Magnusson, 2003). Although both cyclists and non-cyclists tend to agree that safety improvements are necessary (Hopkinson and Wardman, 1996, McClintock, 1992), very few non-cyclists appear to have any intention of cycling (Dickonson et al., 2003). The most commonly cited reasons for cycling are enjoyment and fitness as well as low cost, flexibility and relative speed (Clearly and McClintock, 2000, Davies et al., 2001, Dickonson et al., 2003, Hopkinson and Wardman, 1996, Jensen, 1999, McClintock, 1992, Pooley and Turnbull, 2000). The most often cited factors that prevent people from cycling are travel distance (Kingham et al., 2001), gradient (e.g. Newby, 1993, Bannister, 1988), traffic safety, heavy traffic, inconsiderate drivers, pollution, bad weather (McClintock and Cleary, 1996, Nankervis, 1999), not being fit enough (Wardman et al., 1997) and social pressure (Davies et al., 2001). Women, on average, travel shorter distances and they appear to be more resistant to cycling than men (Dickonson et al., 2003).

Most studies on cycling attitudes and perceptions compare the views of cyclists and non-cyclists. However, Bergström and Magnusson (2003) showed that it may be useful to make more subtle distinctions. In their study they distinguished four different groups: winter (and summer) cyclists, summer-only cyclists, infrequent cyclists and never-cyclists. Each group appeared to have different perceptions of the factors that are important for their mode choice. For instance, winter cyclists valued exercise most whereas weather conditions were especially important for summer cyclists and travel time was most important for non-cyclists. This suggests that a more detailed examination of the attitudes and perceptions of different mode users may provide more useful information on which to base the development of behaviour change strategies (see also Davies et al., 2001).

The transactional model of behaviour change (Prochaska and DiClemente, 1984) views change as a process rather than an event and this process is characterised by a series of stages of change. Modification of behaviour involves progression through five stages: precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action and maintenance (see Table 1). The model has often been used in health psychology to examine changes in problem behaviours such as smoking and cocaine addiction, condom use and weight control (e.g., Prochaska et al., 1994). It deals with intentional behaviour change. In attempting to change a behaviour a person typically moves through these stages of change, sometimes several times before terminating an undesirable (e.g., addictive) behaviour (Prochaska, 1994). The model aims to enable therapists to tailor therapy to a person’s needs at a particular point in the change process. Similarly, it could help policy makers and organisations to develop more effective behaviour change strategies in relation to travel behaviour (see Table 1). In order to do this it is important to first determine where people in the target audience are in terms of the stages of change model.

This paper uses the transactional model of behaviour change to examine attitudes and perceptions in relation to cycling to work. The main goal of the studies presented here is to find out more about who cycles and why and how more people can be persuaded to cycle. Two studies are presented: a survey study among university commuters and an action study in which a group of non-cyclists, ready for action, were asked to cycle to work for a period of two weeks. The aim of the first study was to investigate the attitudes and perceptions of people in different stages of change. The aim of the second study was to examine in more detail how more people might be persuaded to cycle.

Section snippets

Study I: Travel to work survey

The study was conducted among members of the University of Surrey in the affluent South East of the UK. The area is fairly hilly and the University itself is situated on a hill. In October 2000 an e-mail was sent to all staff at the University inviting them to participate in a survey investigating the daily commute by different travel modes. The e-mail informed staff that a questionnaire was available on the University’s website and could be completed on-line. A total of 389 questionnaires were

Study II: A two week cycling period

Prochaska and DiClemente (1984) suggest that people who are ready to take action can be helped to start cycling by helping them to develop specific plans for action. Those who then start cycling need feedback, social support and reinforcement to ensure that they will continue cycling. This study aimed to examine this process. Non-cyclists were asked to cycle to work for a period of two weeks during which they kept a diary of their experiences. They were also interviewed before and after the two

Conclusions

Most of the findings of this study support previous research. For instance, cycling seems more common among men than among women (e.g., Dickonson et al., 2003). All respondents agreed that cycling is healthy and good for the environment (e.g., Davies et al., 2001, Pooley and Turnbull, 2000) and most agreed that cycling is unsafe and that more facilities are needed (e.g., Clearly and McClintock, 2000, Hopkinson and Wardman, 1996, McClintock, 1992). The study also showed some new insights which

References (31)

  • M. Wardman et al.

    The UK national cycling strategy: can improved facilities meet targets?

    Transport Policy

    (1997)
  • Appleton, K.M., Gatersleben, B.C.M., Uzzell, D., 2002. Net health benefits of starting to cycle to work. In:...
  • Bannister, C., 1988. Travel to work patterns in England and Wales for pedestrian and cyclists – their policy...
  • J. Clearly et al.

    The Nottingham Cycle-friendly Employers Project: lessons for encouraging cycle commuting

    Local Environment

    (2000)
  • Davies, D., Gray, S., Gardner, G., Harland, G., 2001. A quantitative study of attitudes of individuals to cycling. TRL...
  • Cited by (341)

    • Practitioners' perspectives on cycling equity: Bridging the gap between planning priorities

      2023, Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment
    View all citing articles on Scopus
    1

    Tel.: +44 28 9097 4326; fax: +44 28 9066 4144.

    View full text