ReviewOkadaic acid (OA): Toxicity, detection and detoxification
Introduction
Harmful algal blooms (HABs), or red tide, are described as the “red ghost” and are among the most prevalent sources of marine pollution; these blooms produce high concentrations of potentially harmful biotoxins that accumulate in the food chain. HABs are composed of a variety of algae, including Prorocentrum lima (P. lima), which was first discovered in UK waters and is an epiphytic-benthic dinoflagellate that is widely distributed in tropical and temperate coastal waters. It easily attaches to the surface of macro algae, the remains of benthic organisms or the floating detritus of mangrove habitats (Nascimento et al., 2005). HABs have been found in many different areas since its first discovery (Bacchiocchi et al., 2015; Li et al., 2014; Turner and Goya, 2015). Toxins produced by P. lima can have multiple harmful effects on humans and animals (Kamat et al., 2013; Le Du et al., 2017; Suzuki, 2012).
Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) is caused by OA, which was first described in 1981 (Schmitz et al., 1981; Tachibana et al., 1981), and its derivatives, named dynophysis toxins (DTXs), which are secreted by P. lima (Braga et al., 2016; Ten-Hage et al., 2000). DSP has been considered a global public health issue since the first report of its occurrence in Japan (Yasumoto et al., 1978). OA is responsible for DSP in humans because it can cause symptoms of apparent gastric bowel dysfunction, such as nausea, vomiting and diarrhea, but it is not considered lethal (Manita et al., 2017). OA causes diarrhea probably by stimulating Na+ secretion by intestinal cells, leading to intraluminal gastrointestinal fluid accumulation and abdominal cramping (Solter and Beasley, 2013). In addition to DSP, OA can also cause other severe harms to humans and animals including neurotoxicity, hepatotoxicity and cytotoxicity (Kamat et al., 2013).
As OA has been increasingly studied, corresponding detection technology has been developed. There are assorted detection methods that are applicable to different situations, including mouse bioassays (MBAs) (Vieites et al., 1996), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) (Mouratidou et al., 2006; Vieites et al., 1996), liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) (Ciminiello et al., 2006; Louppis et al., 2010; Suzuki and Quilliam, 2011), protein phosphatase inhibition assay (PPIA) (Della Loggia et al., 1999), fluorescence microplate assays (Huang et al., 2013), cytotoxicity assays (Flanagan et al., 2001), immunological methods (Leonardo et al., 2018) and biosensor methods (Le Berre et al., 2015; Vilarino et al., 2009). However, some of these methods are no longer applicable because they lack the sensitivity and accuracy required of current detection methods. Therefore, it is essential to develop rapid, accurate and sensitive methods for the detection of OA.
Since OA can cause various injuries to humans, it is necessary to develop effective measures for detection and detoxification of OA. In the past, researchers had been inclined to explore the toxicity mechanism of OA and to develop effective detection methods; detoxification and toxicity reduction measures and drugs have only gradually arisen in recent years (Cakir et al., 2017; Garcia et al., 2016; Murray et al., 2018).
Section snippets
The toxicity of OA
OA has drawn particular concern due not only to its ability to cause DSP but also to its other toxicities in humans following chronic exposure to low concentrations in toxic shellfish. OA can induce cytotoxicity (Ferron et al., 2016; Prego-Faraldo et al., 2016), neurotoxicity (Kamat et al., 2014), immunotoxicity (Del Campo et al., 2017; Franchinia et al., 2005), embryotoxicity (Le Du et al., 2017), genotoxicity (Prego-Faraldo et al., 2015), and cancer promotion (Thompson et al., 2002). The most
The detection of OA
Considering the various toxic effects of OA, it is essential to develop effective methods for quick and accurate detection. These techniques can be divided into three categories: biological, biochemical and chemical methods (Prego-Faraldo et al., 2013). The advantages and disadvantages of following techniques were summarized in Table 2.
The methods for the detoxification or toxicity reduction of OA
OA is one of the most common and extensive marine toxins in the world, and it can be consumed by humans and cause alimentary intoxication. Although it is not considered fatal, its toxicity can seriously threaten human health (Valdiglesias et al., 2013). Recent studies on animals have revealed some ways to reduce the toxicity of OA.
New techniques for reducing OA toxicity were recently reported in the literature. Toxicity reduction of the dinoflagellate algal toxin OA in the freshwater crustacean
Conclusions
Some natural toxins such as OA are harmful to humans but inevitable. For the safety of the population and for economic reasons, researchers must comprehensively understand the structural characteristics, toxicity hazards, detoxification measures and prevention strategies for OA to control it without causing harm. The development of some efficient methods such as PL technology for the prevention or reduction of algae pollution in fisheries and aquaculture industries is urgent.
Ethical statement
I certify that this manuscript is original and has not been published and will not be submitted elsewhere for publication while being considered by Toxicon. No data, including tables and figures, have been fabricated or manipulated to support the conclusions. No data, text, or theories by others are presented as if they were our own. The submission has been received explicitly from all co-authors. And authors whose names appear on the submission have contributed sufficiently to the scientific
Conflicts of interest
None.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Applied Research Project on Nonprofit Technology of Zhejiang Province (No. 2017C33151), the Natural Science Foundation of Ningbo (No. 2015A610275), and the K.C. Wong Magna Fund in Ningbo University.
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