Mobile dynamic passive sampling of trace organic compounds: Evaluation of sampler performance in the Danube River

doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.03.242

Science of The Total Environment

Volume 636, 15 September 2018, Pages 1597-1607

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.03.242 Get rights and content

Highlights

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A dynamic passive sampling device was designed to speed up the chemical uptake
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The device was applied in the Danube river for sampling from a cruising ship
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Spatially and temporally integrated samples of dissolved compounds were obtained
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The device samples up to 5 times faster in comparison with a caged passive sampler
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Mutual comparability of three passive samplers deployed in parallel was shown

Abstract

A “dynamic” passive sampling (DPS) device, consisting of an electrically driven large volume water pumping device coupled to a passive sampler exposure cell, was designed to enhance the sampling rate of trace organic compounds. The purpose of enhancing the sampling rate was to achieve sufficient method sensitivity, when the period available for sampling is limited to a few days. Because the uptake principle in the DPS remains the same as for conventionally-deployed passive samplers, free dissolved concentrations can be derived from the compound uptake using available passive sampler calibration parameters. This was confirmed by good agreement between aqueous concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and hexachlorobenzene (HCB) derived from DPS and conventional caged passive sampler. The DPS device enhanced sampling rates of compounds that are accumulated in samplers under water boundary layer control (WBL) more than five times compared with the conventionally deployed samplers. The DPS device was deployed from a ship cruising downstream the Danube River to provide temporally and spatially integrated concentrations. A DPS-deployed sampler with surface area of 400 cm² can reach sampling rates up to 83 L d⁻¹. The comparison of three passive samplers made of different sorbents and co-deployed in the DPS device, namely silicone rubber (SR), low density polyethylene (LDPE) and SDB-RPS Empore™ disks showed a good correlation of surface specific uptake for compounds that were sampled integratively during the entire exposure period. This provided a good basis for a cross-calibration between the samplers. The good correlation of free dissolved PAHs, PCBs and HCB concentration estimates obtained using SR and LDPE confirmed that both samplers are suitable for the identification of concentration gradients and trends in the water column. We showed that the differences in calculated aqueous concentrations between sampler types are mainly associated with different applied uptake models.

Graphical abstract

Introduction

Organic compounds are often present in the water column of rivers and lakes at trace concentrations that are difficult to detect when conventional low volume spot sampling of water is applied. Despite the low concentrations, chemicals can present a significant risk to aquatic organisms and humans, and many of them are regulated in surface waters (EU, 2013, EU, 2000). Reliable and representative monitoring is required for assessing compliance of water bodies with environmental quality standards, or for characterizing spatial and temporal contamination trends.

Among available methods, passive sampling presents a promising approach to future regulatory monitoring of trace organic compounds (Booij et al., 2016; Lohmann et al., 2012). Besides practical advantages that include passive in situ concentration and preservation of sampled compounds in sorbent materials, passive sampling provides freely dissolved compound concentrations, C_w (Vrana et al., 2005). The C_w is considered to play a key role in understanding chemical's exposure of aquatic organisms (Reichenberg and Mayer, 2006).

When conventional passive water samplers are applied, they must be deployed for several weeks or months, because their ambient sampling rates (R_s), representing the volume of water extracted per unit of time, are low. However, when the time period available for passive sampling is restricted, compensation by high sampling rate is needed to sample a sufficient volume of water for instrumental quantification or measuring chemical effects using bioanalytical tools.

Since R_s proportionally increase with the surface area of a sampler (Booij et al., 2007) they can be increased by using samplers in the form of large thin sheets. Furthermore, R_s increase when the water flow rate or turbulence on the sampler surface is higher (Estoppey et al., 2014; Li et al., 2010; Vermeirssen et al., 2009; Vrana and Schüürmann, 2002). Faster flow conditions cause a thinner water boundary layer (WBL) and lead to lower resistance to mass transfer (Levich, 1962). This is because the mass transfer of hydrophobic compounds is typically controlled by their diffusion through the WBL (Rusina et al., 2007). Flow turbulence can be increased by positioning samplers in a natural or artificially created current, by shaking, rotating or vibrating them during exposure in water (Qin et al., 2009). Allan et al. (2011) have shown increased R_s by towing samplers fastened to the end of a benthic trawl net. In general, input of some external mechanical energy is needed for increasing the water turbulence in vicinity of the samplers.

In this study, we investigated the applicability of a novel “dynamic” passive sampling device (DPS) that was developed with the aim to maximize the sampling rates of pollutants by forcing water at high flow rate along the passive sampler surface. The high flow was achieved by jetting water through a narrow flow-through sampler exposure chamber using a pump. Hereto we 1) compared the performance of DPS with conventional deployment of passive samplers in cages; 2) tested the performance of the DPS device by deployment from a moving ship in the Danube river to obtain integrated freely dissolved concentrations of pollutants in the water column over time and space; 3) compared the uptake of compounds by silicone rubber, low density polyethylene and SDB-RPS Empore™ disks samplers co-deployed inside the DPS device. The first two materials are commonly used for sampling hydrophobic compounds, whereas the latter is used also for sampling hydrophilic compounds. Finally, 4) we evaluated aqueous concentrations of atrazine derived from DPS in relation to those from spot water sampling.

Section snippets

Passive samplers

Three types of passive samplers were applied: two partitioning samplers, SR and LDPE sheets and one adsorption sampler based on styrene-divinylbenzene solid phase extraction disks, SDB-RPS Empore™ disks (ED). AlteSil™ translucent SR sheets 0.5 mm thick (Altec, UK) were cut into samplers with a size of 14 × 28 cm (392 cm², 23 g), Soxhlet extracted in ethylacetate for 72 h and spiked according to the procedure described in Smedes and Booij (2012) with 14 performance reference compounds (PRC: D₁₀

Comparison of caged sampler and DPS

The C_w,SR of PAHs, PCBs and HCB were calculated using analyte amounts accumulated in SR and the R_s,SR obtained as described in Section 2.4. The C_w,SR for stationary caged samplers and stationary DPS devices downstream Bratislava agreed very well (Fig. 3, left graph), with a median ratio of 0.93 and 0.83 for individual PAHs and PCBs, respectively. Similarly, a reasonably good median C_w,SR ratio was obtained for individual PAHs and PCBs from caged samplers and mobile passive samplers in the

Conclusions and perspectives

The main DPS usage domain is a representative measurement of compound levels, averaged in time (TWA) and/or space. The DPS device presents a useful alternative approach to the conventional sampler deployment technique in cages in situations where integrative uptake of compounds accumulated under WBL control must be maximized.

We demonstrated the robustness of the DPS technique in stationary and mobile deployments in a large river. When DPS is used for sampling from a cruising ship, the device

List of terms and abbreviations

A_x

sampler × surface area in contact with water

Caged passive sampler

a passive sampler deployed in a cage made of perforated stainless steel sheet; It was deployed stationary in the Danube downstream Bratislava (see Table 1).

DPS

Dynamic Passive Sampling device; a novel water sampling device which forces water along the surface of sorbent sheets in a stainless steel flow-through chamber. Water passes through the chamber at a high flow rate assisted by a pump. This leads to a high turbulence close to

Acknowledgement

We acknowledge the NORMAN association www.norman-network.net, the SOLUTIONS Project supported by the European Union Seventh Framework Programme (FP7-ENV-2013-two-stage Collaborative project) under grant agreement 603437. The research activities were carried out in the RECETOX Research Infrastructure supported by the Czech Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports (LM2015051) and the European Structural and Investment Funds, Operational Programme Research, Development, Education

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For BDEs 47, 99, 100, 153 and 154, the median ratio ranged from 0.77 to 0.99, which seems to correspond with the higher Biot values for BDE in PE, i.e. Bi up to 5.30 (BDE 153). Our observation is in agreement with previously published field studies (Allan et al., 2010, 2009; Vrana et al., 2018) demonstrating that for parallel silicone and PE (or silicone and SPMD, which consists of a PE membrane filled with triolein) exposures, Np/Ap ratios were close to unity for those PAHs, PCBs and OCPs, for which the sampling was integrative in both samplers. For the compounds and exposures mentioned above, equal surface-specific uptake confirms WBL-controlled mass transfer to both samplers for compounds with sufficiently low Bi.
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Mobile dynamic passive sampling of trace organic compounds: Evaluation of sampler performance in the Danube River

Highlights

Abstract

Graphical abstract

Introduction

Section snippets

Passive samplers

Comparison of caged sampler and DPS

Conclusions and perspectives

List of terms and abbreviations

Acknowledgement

Field performance of seven passive sampling devices for monitoring of hydrophobic substances

Environ. Sci. Technol.

Mobile passive samplers: concept for a novel mode of exposure

Environ. Pollut.

Passive sampling for target and nontarget analyses of moderately polar and nonpolar substances in water

Environ. Toxicol. Chem.

An improved method for estimating in situ sampling rates of nonpolar passive samplers

Environ. Sci. Technol.

Temperature-dependent uptake rates of nonpolar organic compounds by semipermeable membrane devices and low-density polyethylene membranes

Environ. Sci. Technol.

Theory, modelling and calibration of passive samplers used in water monitoring

Laboratory performance study for passive sampling of nonpolar chemicals in water

Environ. Toxicol. Chem.

Priority and other organic substances

Effect of water velocity on the uptake of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) by silicone rubber (SR) and low-density polyethylene (LDPE) passive samplers: an assessment of the efficiency of performance reference compounds (PRCs) in river-like flow condition

Sci. Total Environ.

Directive 2000/60/EC of the European parliament and of the council of 23 October 2000 establishing a framework for community action in the field of water policy

Off. J. Eur. Union

Directive 2013/39/EU of the European Parlament and of the Council of 12 August 2013 amending directives 2000/60/EC and 2008/105/EC as regards priority substances in the field of water policy

Off. J. Eur. Union

Convective diffusion in liquids

Controlled field evaluation of water flow rate effects on sampling polar organic compounds using polar organic chemical integrative samplers

Environ. Toxicol. Chem.

A comprehensive analysis of Danube water quality

Use of passive sampling devices for monitoring and compliance checking of POP concentrations in water

Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int.

Position paper on passive sampling techniques for the monitoring of contaminants in the aquatic environment - achievements to date and perspectives

Trends Environ. Anal. Chem.