Frequent cellular phone use modifies hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis response to a cellular phone call after mental stress in healthy children and adolescents: A pilot study
Graphical abstract
Introduction
Environmental insults have repeatedly been reported to have a negative impact on public health. Children and adolescents grow nowadays in a different environment in comparison to their parents since electromagnetic field exposure is, nowadays, diffuse and inevitable. The electromagnetic exposure to “close to the body” sources include cellular phone usage which is a common part of daily life even among children.
Potential endocrine effects from this technology expansion in pediatric and adolescent populations is suggested by the European Health Risk Assessment Network on Electromagnetic Fields Exposure in its 2012 report (EHFRAN, 2012, Sadetzki et al., 2014): “These groups represent the first generation of Europeans to be exposed to diffuse EMF fields since conception and birth, thus, are expected to be more sensitive to these fields”.
Certain research groups sought to find possible endocrine effects of 900 MHz radiation exposure (Bortkiewicz, 2001, Djeridane et al., 2008, Eskander et al., 2012, Koyu et al., 2005, Mortavazi et al., 2009). In fact, there is growing evidence that people and animals exposed to 900 MHz radiation present thyroid function and morphology alterations (Djeridane et al., 2008, Riccioni et al., 2004, Bergamaschi et al., 2004, Eskander et al., 2012, Hackney and Gulledge, 1994, Koyu et al., 2005, Shahryar et al., 2009). The effect of cellular phone use on fasting glucose is established in the literature (Meo and Al Rubeaan, 2013), while scarce data exist on insulin secretion or insulin resistance to cellular phone call response.
On the other hand, the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis, which constitutes the stress response system of the organism, when activated, as documented by altered salivary or plasma cortisol levels, may affect several systemic responses including those of the nervous, cardiac and immune systems (Chrousos and Gold, 1992, Heim et al., 2000, Hench et al., 1950, Holsboer, 1989, Raison and Miller, 2003, Sternberg et al., 1992, Stratakis and Chrousos, 1995, Tsigos and Chrousos, 1994). Salivary cortisol constitutes a non invasive and sensitive stress biomarker (Aardal-Eriksson et al., 1998, Laudat et al., 1988, Safar Zadeh et al., 2005, Schmidt, 1998, Vining et al., 1983a, Vining et al., 1983b) that is repeatedly used in Trier Social Stress Test for Children (TSST-C) (Beetz et al., 2012, Pesonen et al., 2012, Sherzai et al., 2012). Trier Social Stress Test is a standardized experimental tool for stress assessment independent of individual's confounding factors such as personality, education, income, etc. (Buske-Kirschbaum et al., 1997, Gunnar et al., 2009, Kudielka and Wust, 2010). It consists of a brief preparation period (3 min) followed by a test period in which the subject has to deliver a free speech (5 min) and perform a mathematical task (5 min) in front of an audience. With this, the total exposure time adds up to no more than 13 min (Kudielka et al., 2007a, Kudielka et al., 2007b). As already reported, stress has repeatedly been demonstrated to trigger metabolic and systemic cascades affecting the function of the nervous, cardio-respiratory or immune system, while little is known concerning the impact of other hormones besides the HPA axis, namely of the thyroid hormones, on the HPA axis response to mental stress. On the other hand, little is known on the HPA axis response to cellular phone call after mental stress The aim of the current study was to investigate how HPA axis response changes over time in every day stimuli, in other words, the HPA response to cellular phone call exposure after mental stress in healthy children and adolescents (this generation is the first to be exposed since conception) as well as the possible predictive role of baseline endocrine and biochemical markers such as thyroid hormones levels, glucose and insulin levels to this HPA response.
Section snippets
Study population
Twenty eight healthy primary school graders and high school attendants aged 11–14 (12.5 ± 1.5 years), were recruited from schools from January 2011 to February 2011 for participation in the study. The exclusion criteria included the presence of an infection during the previous month, cardiac or other chronic disease, obesity or chronic medication. They were divided into two groups: those who do not possess and regularly use a cellular phone (occasional users) (n = 16) (Group A) and those who do
Statistical analysis
Results are presented as mean value ± standard deviation in Table 1. Salivary cortisol concentrations were analyzed with Shapiro–Wilks test in order to test the normality of their distribution. The hormonal and biochemical concentrations of the two groups were compared with t-test. Two way ANOVA analysis for repeated measurements was used to evaluate the fluctuation of the salivary cortisol levels reflecting the HPA response. Pearson correlation coefficient was also applied in each group, in
Results
In order to evaluate whether children/adolescents who do not possess a cellular phone have a different response to cellular phone use after mental stress in comparison to those who possess a cellular phone, the 28 participants have been sub-divided in the cellular phone non-owners — primary school pupils, who are not allowed by parents and/or school teachers to carry a cellular phone (Group A), and the high school attendants, who possess a cellular phone (Group B). The participants'
Discussion
In the current study we aimed to investigate the HPA axis response to cellular phone typical use after mental stress in healthy children and adolescents of different groups, the one group comprising cellular phone owners and the second one those who do not possess a cellular phone. The participants were exposed to the operating on the neighboring radiofrequencies 2G and 3G bands of the cellular phones. Yet, the GSM 2G networks support and complement in parallel the 3G wide band, in other words,
Declaration of interest
This research has been conducted with no funding. There has been no conflict of interest for any author.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank all the graders and high-schoolers and their parents for their participation in the study.
References (69)
- et al.
Chronic stress influences the immune system through the thyroid axis
Life Sci.
(2000) - et al.
Swedish review strengthens grounds for concluding that radiation from cellular and cordless phones is a probable human carcinogen
Pathophysiology
(2013) - et al.
Psychological comorbidity and stress reactivity in children and adolescents with recurrent abdominal pain and anxiety disorders
J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry
(2003) - et al.
How does long term exposure to base stations and mobile phones affect human hormone profiles?
Clin. Biochem.
(2012) - et al.
Habituation to repeated stress: get used to it
Neurobiol. Learn. Mem.
(2009) - et al.
Moderate versus severe early life stress: associations with stress reactivity and regulation in 10–12-year-old children
Psychoneuroendocrinology
(2009) - et al.
The potential role of hypocortisolism in the pathophysiology of stress-related bodily disorders
Psychoneuroendocrinology
(2000) - et al.
Effects of 900 MHz electromagnetic field on TSH and thyroid hormones in rats
Toxicol. Lett.
(2005) - et al.
Childhood parental divorce and cortisol in young adulthood: evidence for mediation by family income
Psychoneuroendocrinology
(2009) - et al.
HPA axis responses to laboratory psychosocial stress in healthy elderly adults, younger adults, and children: impact of age and gender
Psychoneuroendocrinology
(2004)
Trier Social Stress Test (Abgeschickt, V., Trans.)
Effects of prenatal restraint stress on the hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal axis and related behavioural and neurobiological alterations
Psychoneuroendocrinology
Why children absorb more microwave radiation than adults: the consequences
J. Microsc. Ultrastruct.
Sex-specific associations between sleep problems and hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenocortical axis activity in children
Psychoneuroendocrinology
Dielectric properties of tissues; variation with age and their relevance in exposure of children to electromagnetic fields; state of knowledge
Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol.
Physiology of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis in health and dysregulation in psychiatric and autoimmune disorders
Endocrinol. Metab. Clin. N. Am.
Numerical dosimetry dedicated to children RF exposure
Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol.
Habituation of cortisol responses to repeated psychosocial stress-further characterization and impact of genetic factors
Psychoneuroendocrinology
Salivary cortisol — an alternative to serum cortisol determinations in dynamic function tests
Clin. Chem. Lab. Med.
Current approaches to the treatment of hypertension in older persons
Postgrad. Med.
Effects of social support by a dog on stress modulation in male children with insecure attachment
Front. Psychol.
Are thyroid dysfunctions related to stress or microwave exposure (900 MHz)
Int. J. Immunopathol. Pharmacol.
Comprehensive meta-analysis Englewood, NJ
A study on the biological effects of exposure mobile-phone frequency EMF
Med. Pr.
Attenuated free cortisol response to psychosocial stress in children with atopic dermatitis
Psychosom. Med.
Age-dependent tissue-specific exposure of cell phone users
Phys. Med. Biol.
Effect of tissues dielectric properties on Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) induced in human heads exposed to mobile handsets
The concepts of stress and stress system disorders. Overview of physical and behavioral homeostasis
J. Am. Med. Assoc.
The Montreal Imaging Stress Task: using functional imaging to investigate the effects of perceiving and processing psychosocial stress in the human brain
J. Psychiatry Neurosci.
Influence of electromagnetic fields emitted by GSM-900 cellular telephones on the circadian patterns of gonadal, adrenal and pituitary hormones in men
Radiat. Res.
Report on priorities of health risk management and communication on EMF exposure
Cortisol response to the Trier Social Stress test among Chinese adolescents
J. Pediatr. Endocrinol. Metab.
Electromagnetic fields: human safety issues
Annu. Rev. Biomed. Eng.
Statistics for the behavioral sciences
Cited by (10)
Building science and radiofrequency radiation: What makes smart and healthy buildings
2020, Building and EnvironmentCitation Excerpt :In five cohorts, Birks et al. found cell phone use by a pregnant woman to be associated with an increased risk for behavioral problems, particularly hyperactivity/inattention in her child [63], and Divan et al. reported behavioral problems in children up to seven years of age [64,65]. Studies of children and adolescents report possible associations of wireless technology use with addictions and depression [66], fatigue [67], altered baseline thyroid hormone levels [68], and poorer well-being [69,70]. Sage and Burgio discuss the damage from low levels of RFR to genetic material including DNA and nuclear structures in the cell, and potential mechanisms of child neurodevelopmental impairment [71].
Sustainable perspectives on energy consumption, EMRF, environment, health and accident risks associated with the use of mobile phones
2017, Renewable and Sustainable Energy ReviewsCitation Excerpt :The conclusions arrived on the health risks associated with mobile phones reported by many researchers are given below [98–111]: Geronikolou et al. [112] found that hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis response to cellular phone after mental stress in children and adolescents followed a different pattern in frequent users. Mobile phone use was associated with a significantly increased adjusted odds’ ratio (AOR) for headaches and migraine and skin itches and children who regularly used mobile phones were also considered to have a health status worse [113].
Adults’ Stress Response to Unexpected Oral and Arithmetic Tasks in Supine Position
2021, Advances in Experimental Medicine and BiologyCan Mobile Phone Usage Affect Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis Response?
2020, 2020 10th Annual Computing and Communication Workshop and Conference, CCWC 2020