Selection parameters and synthesis of multi-input converters for electric vehicles: An overview
Introduction
A compactly built transportation system provides flexible mobility to people and logistics. Road transportation exhausts to almost 75% of the energy drain out in the transportation sector [1]. The automobile sector plays an important role in shaping human civilization and economic growth from centuries affects entire pollution [2]. The vehicles fitted with internal combustion engines (ICE) are accountable for 20%–30% of total greenhouse gas emissions shown in Fig. 1(a) [3]. ICE works with the principle of ideal gas law resulting in the emission of gases like NO2, CO2, CO and NO causes environmental damage known as the greenhouse effect and severely affects human health [2]. The ICE vehicles losses their energy through heat loss and friction on the moving part, the energy flow diagram of ICE is shown in Fig. 1(b) [4]. In this regard, the replacement of ICE boosts the priority towards Electric vehicles (EVs) as the best alternative with fewer emissions [5]. A tricycle powered by batteries in the early development of EV in 1834, but with the rapid improvement in ICE technology made ICE vehicles have the largest share in the market [6].
The battery-powered EVs propulsion requires a heavy battery pack with a short driving range [7]. The development of ICE and EV combination suits best in achieving the aim of power capability and fewer emissions known as hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) [8]. Efforts of HEVs claim better fuel economy than ICE vehicles and maintains the state of charge (SOC) throughout the trip [9]. Hence the automobile sector has an option to shift towards EV powertrains and the shipments of HEVs and EVs are gradually increasing and rapid growth is ensured by forecasting based on the International energy agency (IEA) report shown in Fig. 2 [2,10]. The main issue of HEVs depends on regenerative braking and fuel tank. To solve this issue, Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) were developed where the battery pack can be charged through external outlets [11]. Unlike HEVs, PHEVs facilitate electric motor as primary propulsion while ICE as secondary. PHEV operates as HEV with ICE primary source when battery SOC reaches the limit [12]. The issue of the short driving range is solved with PHEVs and provides a vehicle to grid (V2G) competence [8]. To have an internal source of electricity and independent on external outlets, fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) were developed where these have the potential for long-term [10,13,14] despite the cost and fuelling technology is not mature and at the development stage.
A different approach towards increasing the driving range of HEVs is by charging the battery throughout the trip, it is possible with the addition of energy sources like ultra-capacitor (UC), solar PV, and fuel cell developing a hybrid energy storage systems (HESS) gives the best performance than the individual energy sources [8]. The addition of UC extends the battery life cycles by handling the power demand under transient conditions with higher charge/discharge rate and low internal resistance results in less heat dissipation improves efficiency [15].
The addition of sources needs an efficient power transfer capability. Power electronic circuitry plays a major role in delivering power from sources to load. DC-DC converter plays a crucial role in handling multiple sources and stabilizing at DC bus [16]. Hence a special type of Multi-input converter (MIC) is emerged to perform power handling capabilities efficiently from sources to load [17]. The evolution of MICs in developing novel technologies with various structures has been developed, selection of MIC among various topologies is a challenging task in choosing the best fit for the specific applications [18]. The energy sources in EVs are fed to an inverter through a DC bus to drive a 3-phase motor [[19], [20], [21]] The V2G and G2V is conceptualized, where the power transactions with the grid are involved [22]. The general architecture of MIC in PHEV with a fuel cell, battery, and ultra-capacitor is shown in Fig. 3 [23].
This review paper presents the state-of-the-art for the synthesis of multi-input DC-DC converters and architectures of various types of EVs. Multi-input converters are reviewed in various publications. The previous reviews were made on the multi-input converters applied in HEVs [17], distribution generation units [24], grid-connected [25,26]. The review done in Ref. [27] covered the important topologies at the time it was published (2015). Despite this, the authors did not extensively provide recent topologies. The review in Refs. [17,24] had covered the topologies up to 2016 and 2018 respectively. However, there is a noticeable time gap all the while new topologies have been proposed. Hence, an updated review is essential to provide useful information to the awaited researchers and designers. The researchers expanding the newer topologies with an application-oriented approach. However, until now, there is no specific topology is advantageous based on the application and cost. By its elemental characteristics, a particular topology is well suited for a specific application and unsuitable for others. Due to this reason, the trade-off is proposed on the synthesis of MIC and its application. Each MIC topologies have their unique features and best-suited applications, and there is no particular topology fits-all solution. In this aspect, the authors aim to present an extensive review of the synthesis of MIC topologies based on the application oriented approach. Also focuses on the various architectures of EVs, representing the demand for MIC in EV. This comprehensive review will be useful to realize MIC topologies for individual applications and classify their respective merits and demerits.
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Classification of EVs with various HEV architectures and comparison of different motors used in EV propulsion explained in section 2. A comprehensive study on the family of MIC, synthesis of MICs along with classification are discussed in section 3. Further, the classification of MIC structures based on various characteristics with comparison tables given in section 4. Section 5 provides various discussions in the selection of MIC based on application requirements, and section 6 provides remarkable conclusions.
Section snippets
Types of electric vehicles
The revolution of EVs from the conventional ICEs provides the features like silent ride, desired torque requirement, low fuel consumption, and maintenance cost caught the attention of the automotive industry to shift gear on EVs. Electric motors are involved in the propulsion. EVs are majorly classified into two types: Autonomous electric vehicles (AEV) and Plug-in electric vehicles (PEV). In addition to these types, the further classification of EVs is shown in Fig. 4 [28].
The autonomous
Multi-input converter
Conventional power electronic converters consist of a single input and single output. These converters are nonlinear, time-variant systems [131]. Rather than these converters, the applications with more than one source such as hybrid systems or integrated power systems supply to load [132]. These types of converters can be realized with a set of single input and single output power converters from each source to load [133]. Hence the power electronics circuitry increases with an increase in
Categorization of MICs
The general categorization of MICs based on selection parameters is shown in Fig. 24. A generalized representation of each category of converters is explained and the respective comparisons are made with several topologies in the following subsections.
Classification of selection parameters
Given the previous classification and selection parameters of MICs, the evolution of several topologies is observed for various applications. Every topology holds the respective consequences in the application-oriented. So, due to these consequences, it turns into a challenging task for the user in the selection of a particular MIC. Keeping this in mind, this section focuses on the generalized procedure for the MIC selection for the aimed application.
For undergoing the process of MIC selection,
Conclusion
HEVs are the best alternative for the ICE due to their fewer emissions, silent operation, economical in maintenance, and fuel cost. This paper extensively presents a state-of-art review on all EV architectures. Several comparisons are made based on the various essential parameters, drive cycles, and electric motors comprehensively used in EVs. All possible combinations of HESS sources used in EV architectures with their merits and demerits are presented. The synthesis and classification of
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the support of the Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, India for providing a SEED grant for this work. In addition, the authors would like to thank the respective copyright holders for permission granted to include cited graphics, images tables and/or figures in this work.
References (274)
- et al.
A review of energy sources and energy management system in electric vehicles
Renew Sustain Energy Rev
(2013) - et al.
Cost and CO2 aspects of future vehicle options in Europe under new energy policy scenarios
Energy Pol
(2010) - et al.
An experimental evaluation of the methodology proposed for the monitoring and certification of CO2 emissions from heavy-duty vehicles in Europe
Energy
(2016) - et al.
Electric propulsion system for electric vehicular technology: a review
Renew Sustain Energy Rev
(2014) - et al.
A review of Battery Electric Vehicle technology and readiness levels
Renew Sustain Energy Rev
(2017) - et al.
Energy analysis of electric vehicles using batteries or fuel cells through well-to-wheel driving cycle simulations
J Power Sources
(2009) Transportation options in a carbon-constrained world: hybrids, plug-in hybrids, biofuels, fuel cell electric vehicles, and battery electric vehicles
Int J Hydrogen Energy
(2009)- et al.
A cost comparison of fuel-cell and battery electric vehicles
J Power Sources
(2004) - et al.
Energy sources and multi-input DC-DC converters used in hybrid electric vehicle applications – a review
Int J Hydrogen Energy
(2018) - et al.
Design, demonstrations and sustainability impact assessments for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
Renew Sustain Energy Rev
(2009)
Multi-input DC/DC converters in connection with distributed generation units – a review
Renew Sustain Energy Rev
Multiinput DC-DC converters in renewable energy applications - an overview
Renew Sustain Energy Rev
The effect of communication architecture on the availability, reliability, and economics of plug-in hybrid electric vehicle-to-grid ancillary services
J Power Sources
A review of factors influencing consumer intentions to adopt battery electric vehicles
Renew Sustain Energy Rev
Energy management of hybrid electric vehicles: a review of energy optimization of fuel cell hybrid power system based on genetic algorithm
Energy Convers Manag
Review of electrical energy storage system for vehicular applications
Renew Sustain Energy Rev
Next generation electric drives for HEV/EV propulsion systems: technology, trends and challenges
Renew Sustain Energy Rev
A novel simplified model for torsional vibration analysis of a series-parallel hybrid electric vehicle
Mech Syst Signal Process
The impact of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles on distribution networks: a review and outlook
Renew Sustain Energy Rev
Energy management strategy for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. A comparative study
Appl Energy
Plug-in fuel cell electric vehicles: a California case study
Int J Hydrogen Energy
Economic energy management strategy design and simulation for a dual-stack fuel cell electric vehicle
Int J Hydrogen Energy
A comparative study on the applicability of ultracapacitor models for electric vehicles under different temperatures
Appl Energy
Integration between super-capacitors and ZEBRA batteries as high performance hybrid storage system for electric vehicles
Energy Procedia
Integration of batteries with ultracapacitors for a fuel cell hybrid transit bus
J Power Sources
Optimal control of a hybrid battery/supercapacitor storage for neighborhood electric vehicles
Energy Procedia
Model predictive control for power management in a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle with a hybrid energy storage system
Appl Energy
Utilizing solar and wind energy in plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
Energy Convers Manag
Rare-earth-free propulsion motors for electric vehicles: a technology review
Renew Sustain Energy Rev
A novel configuration for a brushless DC motor with an integrated planetary gear train
J Magn Magn Mater
Comparative Analysis of BLDC motor for different control topology
Energy Procedia
Simplified fault tolerant finite control set model predictive control of a five-phase inverter supplying BLDC motor in electric vehicle drive
Elec Power Syst Res
Design and implementation of a loss optimization control for electric vehicle in-wheel permanent-magnet synchronous motor direct drive system
Energy Procedia
Robust current control-based generalized predictive control with sliding mode disturbance compensation for PMSM drives
ISA Trans
Modeling of synchronous electric machines for real-time simulation and automotive applications
J Franklin Inst
Design, simulation and implementation of a PID vector control for EHVPMSM for an automobile with hybrid technology
J Mater Res Technol
A permanent magnet alternator with increased power capability for hybrid electric vehicle applications
Elec Power Syst Res
DC-DC converter topologies for electric vehicles, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles and fast charging stations: state of the art and future trends
Energies
Annual European Union greenhouse gas inventory 1990-2011 and inventory report 2013
Emerging energy-efficient technologies for hybrid electric vehicles
Proc IEEE
A comprehensive overview of hybrid electric vehicles
Int J Veh Technol
A comprehensive review on hybrid electric vehicles: architectures and components
J Mod Transp
Keysight technologies white paper “emerging solutions to hybrid & electric vehicle DC : dc
Converter Design and Test”
A comprehensive study of key electric vehicle (EV) components, technologies, challenges, impacts, and future direction of development
Energies
Power electronics: advanced conversion technologies
Comparative analysis on selection and synthesis of multiple input converters: a review
IET Power Electron
Praveen Kumar M, Rini Ann Jerin A, et al. Real-time implementation of a 31-level asymmetrical cascaded multilevel inverter for dynamic loads
IEEE Access
A new three-phase multi-level asymmetrical inverter with optimum
Hardware Component
Power electronics and motor drives in electric, hybrid electric, and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
IEEE Trans Ind Electron
Hybrid electric vehicles: architecture and motor drives
Proc IEEE
Cited by (31)
Recent trends in photovoltaic technologies for sustainable transportation in passenger vehicles – A review
2023, Renewable and Sustainable Energy ReviewsA structural overview on transformer and transformer-less multi level inverters for renewable energy applications
2022, Energy ReportsCitation Excerpt :Furthermore, by comparing several topologies, the ideal topology for a certain application may be quickly identified and deployed based on the requirements. The TSDCMI based topologies are well suited for the applications in which utilization of more than one DC source is required such a electric vehicles (Reddi Khasim and Dhanamjayulu, 2021). Using various performance measures, several topologies were examined in terms of the number of transformers, semiconductor devices, and output voltage levels (Lu et al., 2013).
Design and implementation of a novel 35-level inverter topology with reduced switch count
2022, Electric Power Systems ResearchCitation Excerpt :Multi-Level Inverters (MLIs) are familiarized as promising alternative resources of all other sorts of inverters in the real world because of their transplanting features like minimum Voltage Stress on power electronic semiconductor switches and minimum switching losses, a low value of THD, the capability to function in low, medium or high-power applications and Hybrid /Full electric vehicle (HEV) applications [1].
Wireless charging systems for electric vehicles
2022, Renewable and Sustainable Energy ReviewsCitation Excerpt :To enhance the system efficiency, these coils are usually used along with capacitors so that a resonant circuit is achieved. Series and parallel combinations of capacitors and inductors may be used for this purpose [87]. The compensating circuit is connected between the inverter and the primary coil on the transmitting side, while it is connected between the rectifier and the secondary unit on the receiving side.
Meta-heuristics optimization in electric vehicles -an extensive review
2022, Renewable and Sustainable Energy ReviewsCitation Excerpt :While Rule-based and fuzzy logic-based control and management reign these domains, the scope of optimization in such scenarios for the management and control from an energy management standpoint is predominant. DP, GA and other swarm-based optimization algorithms have been researched and continue strong [301,302]. Meta-heuristic optimization can be deployed to tackle problems at strategic, tactical and operational levels for ride-sharing systems like Uber, Ola etc.
Heuristic design and modelling of modified interleaved boost converter for E-mobility control
2023, COMPEL - The International Journal for Computation and Mathematics in Electrical and Electronic Engineering