Selection parameters and synthesis of multi-input converters for electric vehicles: An overview

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.110804Get rights and content

Highlights

  • Various architectures of electric vehicles are presented.

  • A comprehensive review of the synthesis of multi-input DC-DC converters is done.

  • MIC architecture is developed based on the design rules are formulated.

  • The selection of a multi-input converter based on various parameters is presented.

  • An application-oriented framework helps researchers in the selection of topology.

Abstract

The effect of pollution on the planet earth and the rapid use of fossil fuels provides a strong impulse for the growth and evolution of electric vehicles (EVs). The advancements in Hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) proving the best quick fix towards the severity of the problem on the planet. HEVs not only reduce the emissions but also decreases the fuel cost for the consumer with their improved driving range and dynamic characteristics satisfying environmental regulations. For the extension of the driving range in EVs, multiple energy sources like ultra-capacitor, fuel cells, solar PV are to be interfaced with a battery. This in turn reduces the charging time, which is a significant drawback of EVs. To handle the multiple sources with distinct V–I characteristics, an efficient power electronic circuitry is needed, which can able to provide an efficient power transfer capability between sources and load for the vehicle propulsion. In handling the energy from multiple sources stabilizing at DC bus, the DC-DC converter plays a crucial role. Due to this, in the recent past, the transformation of DC-DC converters from a single input to a multi-input (MIC) has been noticed. The several combinations of integrating sources let on to the new topologies and even more complicated with the configurations. The topology selection imposes more challenges in choosing the best fit for the specific applications. This paper produces a detailed review of the types of EVs, their architectures, merits and demerits. MIC topologies used in EVs with a detailed comparison. A comprehensive study on design rules of MICs, structures and selection procedures of MICs for various applications in detail. This study categorizes MICs based on their characteristics. The significant findings, merits and demerits are also discussed in detail with their suitability.

Introduction

A compactly built transportation system provides flexible mobility to people and logistics. Road transportation exhausts to almost 75% of the energy drain out in the transportation sector [1]. The automobile sector plays an important role in shaping human civilization and economic growth from centuries affects entire pollution [2]. The vehicles fitted with internal combustion engines (ICE) are accountable for 20%–30% of total greenhouse gas emissions shown in Fig. 1(a) [3]. ICE works with the principle of ideal gas law resulting in the emission of gases like NO2, CO2, CO and NO causes environmental damage known as the greenhouse effect and severely affects human health [2]. The ICE vehicles losses their energy through heat loss and friction on the moving part, the energy flow diagram of ICE is shown in Fig. 1(b) [4]. In this regard, the replacement of ICE boosts the priority towards Electric vehicles (EVs) as the best alternative with fewer emissions [5]. A tricycle powered by batteries in the early development of EV in 1834, but with the rapid improvement in ICE technology made ICE vehicles have the largest share in the market [6].

The battery-powered EVs propulsion requires a heavy battery pack with a short driving range [7]. The development of ICE and EV combination suits best in achieving the aim of power capability and fewer emissions known as hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) [8]. Efforts of HEVs claim better fuel economy than ICE vehicles and maintains the state of charge (SOC) throughout the trip [9]. Hence the automobile sector has an option to shift towards EV powertrains and the shipments of HEVs and EVs are gradually increasing and rapid growth is ensured by forecasting based on the International energy agency (IEA) report shown in Fig. 2 [2,10]. The main issue of HEVs depends on regenerative braking and fuel tank. To solve this issue, Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) were developed where the battery pack can be charged through external outlets [11]. Unlike HEVs, PHEVs facilitate electric motor as primary propulsion while ICE as secondary. PHEV operates as HEV with ICE primary source when battery SOC reaches the limit [12]. The issue of the short driving range is solved with PHEVs and provides a vehicle to grid (V2G) competence [8]. To have an internal source of electricity and independent on external outlets, fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) were developed where these have the potential for long-term [10,13,14] despite the cost and fuelling technology is not mature and at the development stage.

A different approach towards increasing the driving range of HEVs is by charging the battery throughout the trip, it is possible with the addition of energy sources like ultra-capacitor (UC), solar PV, and fuel cell developing a hybrid energy storage systems (HESS) gives the best performance than the individual energy sources [8]. The addition of UC extends the battery life cycles by handling the power demand under transient conditions with higher charge/discharge rate and low internal resistance results in less heat dissipation improves efficiency [15].

The addition of sources needs an efficient power transfer capability. Power electronic circuitry plays a major role in delivering power from sources to load. DC-DC converter plays a crucial role in handling multiple sources and stabilizing at DC bus [16]. Hence a special type of Multi-input converter (MIC) is emerged to perform power handling capabilities efficiently from sources to load [17]. The evolution of MICs in developing novel technologies with various structures has been developed, selection of MIC among various topologies is a challenging task in choosing the best fit for the specific applications [18]. The energy sources in EVs are fed to an inverter through a DC bus to drive a 3-phase motor [[19], [20], [21]] The V2G and G2V is conceptualized, where the power transactions with the grid are involved [22]. The general architecture of MIC in PHEV with a fuel cell, battery, and ultra-capacitor is shown in Fig. 3 [23].

This review paper presents the state-of-the-art for the synthesis of multi-input DC-DC converters and architectures of various types of EVs. Multi-input converters are reviewed in various publications. The previous reviews were made on the multi-input converters applied in HEVs [17], distribution generation units [24], grid-connected [25,26]. The review done in Ref. [27] covered the important topologies at the time it was published (2015). Despite this, the authors did not extensively provide recent topologies. The review in Refs. [17,24] had covered the topologies up to 2016 and 2018 respectively. However, there is a noticeable time gap all the while new topologies have been proposed. Hence, an updated review is essential to provide useful information to the awaited researchers and designers. The researchers expanding the newer topologies with an application-oriented approach. However, until now, there is no specific topology is advantageous based on the application and cost. By its elemental characteristics, a particular topology is well suited for a specific application and unsuitable for others. Due to this reason, the trade-off is proposed on the synthesis of MIC and its application. Each MIC topologies have their unique features and best-suited applications, and there is no particular topology fits-all solution. In this aspect, the authors aim to present an extensive review of the synthesis of MIC topologies based on the application oriented approach. Also focuses on the various architectures of EVs, representing the demand for MIC in EV. This comprehensive review will be useful to realize MIC topologies for individual applications and classify their respective merits and demerits.

The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Classification of EVs with various HEV architectures and comparison of different motors used in EV propulsion explained in section 2. A comprehensive study on the family of MIC, synthesis of MICs along with classification are discussed in section 3. Further, the classification of MIC structures based on various characteristics with comparison tables given in section 4. Section 5 provides various discussions in the selection of MIC based on application requirements, and section 6 provides remarkable conclusions.

Section snippets

Types of electric vehicles

The revolution of EVs from the conventional ICEs provides the features like silent ride, desired torque requirement, low fuel consumption, and maintenance cost caught the attention of the automotive industry to shift gear on EVs. Electric motors are involved in the propulsion. EVs are majorly classified into two types: Autonomous electric vehicles (AEV) and Plug-in electric vehicles (PEV). In addition to these types, the further classification of EVs is shown in Fig. 4 [28].

The autonomous

Multi-input converter

Conventional power electronic converters consist of a single input and single output. These converters are nonlinear, time-variant systems [131]. Rather than these converters, the applications with more than one source such as hybrid systems or integrated power systems supply to load [132]. These types of converters can be realized with a set of single input and single output power converters from each source to load [133]. Hence the power electronics circuitry increases with an increase in

Categorization of MICs

The general categorization of MICs based on selection parameters is shown in Fig. 24. A generalized representation of each category of converters is explained and the respective comparisons are made with several topologies in the following subsections.

Classification of selection parameters

Given the previous classification and selection parameters of MICs, the evolution of several topologies is observed for various applications. Every topology holds the respective consequences in the application-oriented. So, due to these consequences, it turns into a challenging task for the user in the selection of a particular MIC. Keeping this in mind, this section focuses on the generalized procedure for the MIC selection for the aimed application.

For undergoing the process of MIC selection,

Conclusion

HEVs are the best alternative for the ICE due to their fewer emissions, silent operation, economical in maintenance, and fuel cost. This paper extensively presents a state-of-art review on all EV architectures. Several comparisons are made based on the various essential parameters, drive cycles, and electric motors comprehensively used in EVs. All possible combinations of HESS sources used in EV architectures with their merits and demerits are presented. The synthesis and classification of

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge the support of the Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, India for providing a SEED grant for this work. In addition, the authors would like to thank the respective copyright holders for permission granted to include cited graphics, images tables and/or figures in this work.

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