Skill-related physical fitness versus aerobic fitness as a predictor of executive functioning in children with intellectual disabilities or borderline intellectual functioning

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2017.03.001Get rights and content

Highlights

  • A 4-year longitudinal study was undertaken in children with intellectual disabilities.

  • Skill-related fitness is associated with inhibition and cognitive flexibility.

  • Aerobic fitness is not associated with executive functioning.

  • A unique relationship exists between skill-related fitness and executive functions.

Abstract

Children with intellectual disabilities (ID) or borderline intellectual disabilities (BIF) often demonstrate impairments in executive functioning (EF). Studies in typically developing children show that aerobic fitness (AF) is positively related with EF. Skill-related physical fitness (SF) might, however, be a stronger predictor of EF than AF, as cognitive challenges are inherent in application of these skills. In this study, AF and SF were examined simultaneously in relationship with domains of EF in children with ID or BIF. Seventy-three children (age range 8–11; 51 boys) with ID (IQ range 56–79) or BIF (IQ range 71–79) were measured annually over a period of 4 years on AF (20-m endurance shuttle run test) and SF (plate tapping and 10 × 5 m run). EF was measured with the Stroop Color-Word test (inhibition), Trailmaking and Fluency test (cognitive flexibility), Self-ordered pointing task (working memory) and the Tower of London (planning). Multilevel models showed that SF was significantly associated with inhibition and both measures of cognitive flexibility, but in the same models no significant associations between AF and EF were found. In addition, age was significantly related to working memory and cognitive flexibility, favouring the older children. In children with ID or BIF, SF is of greater importance than AF in relationship with core domains of EF.

Section snippets

What this paper adds?

For the first time aerobic fitness and skill-related physical fitness were examined simultaneously in relationship with a wide range of EF domains (inhibition, cognitive flexibility, working memory and planning) in 8–11- year old children with ID or BIF. In this longitudinal study, the children were measured annually over a period of 4 years. Multilevel models were used in order to give insight into possible developmental changes per EF measure with increasing age. Next, multilevel modelling

Participants

Seventy-three children (IQ M = 70.8, range 56–79; 51 boys) from a primary special-needs school located in the northern regions of the Netherlands participated in a longitudinal study. In the year of enrolment, the age range of the children was 8–11 years (M = 9.26; SD = 1.04). Twenty-eight children with mild intellectual functioning (ID; 20 boys and 8 girls; IQ range 56–70) and forty-five children with borderline intellectual functioning (BIF; 31 boys and 14 girls; IQ range 71–79) were identified. IQ

Descriptives and developmental changes per EF measure

In Table 1, the descriptives of aerobic physical fitness, skill-related physical fitness, and EF of the children in the year of enrolment are shown.

In Fig. 1, Fig. 2, the developmental changes per EF measure are presented. The models were not influenced by age2, so this variable was not included in the final models. The inhibition model showed a statistically significant decrease over time (i.e. better performance) of the 12-year-old children compared to the 10-year-old children. The model was

Discussion

Relationships between aerobic physical fitness with EF have been studied frequently in primary school children, and the possible association between skill-related physical fitness and EF has received more attention in the past few years. For the first time aerobic fitness and skill-related physical fitness were examined simultaneously in relationship with EF in children with ID or BIF, which provides more insight into the unique contribution of these factors on the level of EF.

The current study

Conclusions

A unique relationship exists between skill-related physical fitness and inhibition and cognitive flexibility in 8- to 11- year old children with ID or BIF. The data suggest that in these children skill-related physical fitness is of greater importance in relationship with core domains of EF than aerobic fitness. The results support the learning and developmental hypothesis. The results are important as children with ID or BIF are a vulnerable population regarding both physical fitness as well

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank the teachers from the schools, and the children who participated in this study.

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