Reduction in uptake of PSA tests following decision aids: systematic review of current aids and their evaluations
Section snippets
Background
Controversy surrounds the use of prostate-specific antigen (PSA), a serum tumour marker that is widely used as a test to detect prostate cancer. The difficulties lie in the poor sensitivity and specificity of the test and our lack of understanding of both the natural history of prostate cancer and of how best to treat the disease [1], [2]. Internationally, the situation varies: in the USA, for instance, there are well-established PSA screening programmes [3]. In the UK, the government has
Objectives
We undertook a systematic review to identify and appraise PSA decision aids and evaluations of decision aids.
Criteria for considering studies for this review
We included all identified PSA decision aids and the evaluations (quality and outcomes) of PSA decision aids. We excluded prostate cancer/screening decision aids which did not discuss PSA testing and prostate cancer treatment decision aids. In addition, we excluded decision aids and evaluations involving patients and prisoners in military settings — where they may not be free to choose [7]. We did not exclude articles or aids on design or evaluation quality grounds: these were assessed
Search strategy for identification of studies
Fifteen electronic databases were searched: [MEDLINE (1966–2003), EMBASE (1980–2003), CINAHL (1982–2003), CancerLit (1983–2003), Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (2003), Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (2003), Science Citation Index (SCI) (1981–2003), Social Sciences Citation Index (1981–2003), Applied Social Sciences Index and Abstracts (1987–2003), NHS National Research Register (2003), Psycinfo (1967–2003), Educational Resources Information Centre (ERIC) (1985–2003),
Methods of the review
The titles and abstracts of all identified articles were assessed by one reviewer (RE) for their inclusion/exclusion. A random sample (10%) of the included and excluded articles was checked by two independent reviewers (AE, JB: 5% each). A list of articles to be assessed in full-text was then agreed upon. One reviewer (RE) assessed all the full-text articles for inclusion. They were also distributed between three other reviewers (AE, JB, EW) for independent assessment. A list of articles for
Description of studies
Thirty-two thousand five hundred and ninety-six articles were identified in the electronic search, from which 35 articles were assessed in full-text for possible inclusion. The yield from the individual databases is shown in Appendix B. Hand-searching and individual contacts identified a further eight articles. A total of 43 articles were therefore identified for assessment in full-text, from which emerged a final ‘inclusion’ list of 7 decision aids and 11 decision aid evaluations (Table 1,
Methodological quality of included evaluations
The methods score of the evaluations is shown in Table 2. The studies were scored independently by two reviewers and both scores are shown. All studies were scored out of 22, the exception being the observational study by Beggs et al. [27] which was scored out of 16. In comparison to studies generally encountered in this research field [7], the trials by Wilt et al. [24], Volk et al. [20], Wolf et al. [17] are above average in their methodological quality; the trials by Schapira and VanRuiswyk
PSA testing
In the four randomised controlled trials [21], [24], [25], [26], PSA testing was assessed at 12 months after the intervention, with the exception of Hammond et al. (18 months) [26]. Overall, there was a 3.5% absolute reduction in the number of patients who had a PSA test (95% confidence interval: 0.0–7.2%; P = 0.05) following a decision aid intervention. The results are presented in Table 3 and Fig. 1. The Hammond et al.’s trial dominated the meta-analysis, but adjusting for the cluster effect
Discussion
Seven PSA decision aids and 11 evaluations were identified. The meta-analyses suggest that the decision aids increase users’ knowledge about PSA and reduce uptake of the test. Most of the decision aids were of a paper/document format [13], [14], [15], [17], [18], [19] and the majority were from the USA [13], [14], [15], [16], [17]. Whilst there was development information available on all seven decision aids, only three had been formally evaluated [14], [16], [17]. All of the evaluations were
Acknowledgements
We thank Tricia Chapman, Library Services, Ceredigion and Mid Wales NHS Trust and Lori Havard, Library Services, University of Wales Swansea, for acquiring the papers. We thank Professors Annette O’Connor, Hanneke De Haes, Pat Wright and Dr. Bob Volk for sharing information and for their kind advice.
Contributions: RE designed the protocol, conducted the literature searches, assessed studies for inclusion and data extraction, and led the drafting of this article. He is also the guarantor of the
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