Social decision making in narcissism: Reduced generosity and increased retaliation are driven by alterations in perspective-taking and anger
Introduction
Narcissism – both on the sub-clinical and on the pathological level – is characterized by enhanced feelings of grandiosity and entitlement as well as by impairments in interpersonal functioning (Bushman and Baumeister, 1998, Campbell et al., 2005, Given-Wilson et al., 2011, Morf and Rhodewalt, 2001). Narcissists are considered less likable by others (Back et al., 2013), are less often engaged in committed and satisfactory relationships (Campbell, 1999, Campbell et al., 2002, Carroll, 1987, Paulhus, 1998), and their behavior negatively impacts on others and on society (Barry et al., 2011, Rosenthal and Pittinsky, 2006, Sedikides et al., 2002). Considering the increase of narcissistic traits in young generations (Cai et al., 2012, Twenge et al., 2008), a more comprehensive understanding of social decision making and the underlying impairments in narcissism is crucial. Accordingly, the present study addressed two questions. First, which specific characteristics of social decision making in reciprocal interactive situations are affected by trait narcissism? Second, which differences in socio-cognitive and -affective abilities mediate the observed behavioral differences?
Concerning the first question, psychological research suggests that (sub-clinical) narcissism is related to reduced prosocial decision making. Narcissists report lower moral and ethical standards (Antes et al., 2007, Brown et al., 2010, Cooper and Pullig, 2013), volunteer less for the sake of others, and invest less time to help others (Brunell et al., 2014, Lannin et al., 2014). Using a social dilemma (‘Public Goods Game’) Campbell et al. (2005) demonstrated that trait narcissism predicts more selfish and less prosocial choices.
While previous studies investigated how generously narcissists acted towards others, it is yet unknown how their behavior is shaped in interactions that consist not only of an isolated action towards another, but also entails the other's response. In fact, decades of research in behavioral economics suggest that the opportunity to reciprocate or retaliate against others' actions determines social decision making in two important ways: First, people adjust generous or cooperative behavior to whether their interaction partners can respond (e.g., by punishing unfair distribution choices; Fehr and Gachter, 2002, Güth, 1995, Spitzer et al., 2007, Steinbeis et al., 2012). Put simply, people give more when others have the option to retaliate, a behavioral tendency that has been termed strategic giving (e.g., Steinbeis et al., 2012). Second, people tend to punish those who behave selfishly (Fehr and Fischbacher, 2004, Fehr and Gachter, 2002, McAuliffe et al., 2015). This behavior can reflect anger-based retaliation, but also a tendency to enforce social norms (Fehr and Fischbacher, 2004, Fehr and Gachter, 2002, McCall et al., 2014, Sanfey et al., 2003, Sigmund, 2007). Based on this literature, two crucial questions arise regarding social decision making in narcissism: First, how do narcissists adjust their generous behavior depending on whether or not their interaction partner can punish (i.e., how strategic do they behave)? And second, how do people scoring high on narcissism punish others' unfair offers (i.e., how norm-driven or anger-driven do they behave)?
The second goal of the present study concerns the mechanisms that underlie altered social decision making in narcissism. Research shows, for instance, that reduced levels of empathy and perspective-taking drive the enhanced sense of entitlement in criminal narcissists (Hepper, Hart, Meek, Cisek, & Sedikides, 2014). Besides impairments in such interpersonal traits, narcissism has been linked to enhanced Machiavellian attitudes and increased negative emotions such as anger (Bushman and Baumeister, 1998, Menon and Sharland, 2011, Witte et al., 2002). As these socio-affective and socio-cognitive processes have been related to inter-individual differences in social behavior in the general population (Bereczkei et al., 2010, Hein et al., 2010, Knoch et al., 2006, Rudolph et al., 2004), the present study systematically tested whether inter-individual differences in such traits mediate the identified alterations in social decision making in narcissism.
In order to address the first goal, we used well-established game theoretical paradigms that specifically allowed the assessment of 1) first mover giving behavior: giving behavior displayed towards others who could or could not respond with punishment (Dictator Game and 2nd Party Punishment Game; Axelrod and Hamilton, 1981, Camerer, 2003, Fehr and Fischbacher, 2004) and 2) second/third mover punishment behavior: costly punishment responses to distribution choices of others in direct and observed interactions (2nd and 3rd Party Punishment Game; Fehr & Fischbacher, 2004). In order to investigate possible mediators of altered social decision making, we assessed state affect during the hypothetical punishment game, as well as interpersonal traits (Interpersonal Reactivity Index and Cognitive and Emotional Empathy Questionnaire; Davis, 1983, Savage et al., submitted), and Machiavellianism (Henning & Six, 1977).
Concerning first mover behavior, we expected to replicate findings of reduced generosity in narcissism (e.g., Campbell et al., 2005). Beyond, we were interested whether trait narcissism is related to enhanced strategic behavior (i.e., less generosity especially when others cannot punish), which would be in line with reports of enhanced Machiavellian attitudes in narcissism (Menon & Sharland, 2011). Alternatively, given that narcissists are less concerned with the effects their actions have on others (Sedikides et al., 2002), it may be that they are less sensitive to other's prospective reactions and, hence, behave less generously not only when retaliation is impossible (Dictator Game), but also when the other player can punish (2nd Party Punishment Game). Concerning second and third mover punishment behavior, based on findings of a heightened perception of others as unfair and enhanced anger and aggression in narcissism (Bushman and Baumeister, 1998, Menon and Sharland, 2011), we hypothesized that narcissism is related to an increase in anger-based punishment.
Section snippets
Participants
Participants completed a short screening on demographic information and mental health. Only participants without a history of psychiatric disorders were included. In total, 122 Native German speaking participants took part in the study (41 female, mean age = 30 years, SD = 11 years). Sample size was selected based on recommendations to ensure statistical power even in case of small to medium effect sizes (Vazire, 2016).
Participants filled in in the Pathological Narcissistic Inventory (PNI; Pincus et
Results
The relation of narcissism to the different parameters of social decision making was assessed by means of comparing the high narcissism with the low narcissisms group (according to a median split on participants' PNI scores) and by correlations with narcissism (according to participants' absolute PNI scores).
Discussion
Considering the personal and societal costs of narcissism (Barry et al., 2011, Rosenthal and Pittinsky, 2006, Sedikides et al., 2002), a more comprehensive understanding of the impairments in narcissists' social behavior and of the underlying factors is crucial. The present study addressed this objective by 1) investigating the link between sub-clinical narcissism and various components of social decision making such as generous, strategic and punishment behaviors and by 2) examining the
Conclusion
The present study revealed that the decreased proneness or ability of narcissists to take others' perspectives leads to reduced generous behavior towards others, a pattern that played out especially when interaction partners could retaliate. Conversely, when facing unfair distribution choices of others narcissists responded with more anger and, consequently, stronger retaliation behavior. Since both reduced generosity and enhanced retributive aggressive actions have been reliably shown to
Declaration of conflicting interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: Preparation of this manuscript was fully supported by the Max Planck Society, Germany.
References (56)
- et al.
Narcissism and the non-equivalence of self-esteem measures: A matter of dominance?
Journal of Research in Personality
(2004) - et al.
Do narcissists make better decisions? An investigation of narcissism and dynamic decision-making performance
Personality and Individual Differences
(2013) - et al.
Social norms and human cooperation
Trends in Cognitive Sciences
(2004) - et al.
Meta-cognitive and interpersonal difficulties in overt and covert narcissism
Personality and Individual Differences
(2011) On ultimatum bargaining experiments — A personal review
Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization
(1995)- et al.
Neural responses to ingroup and outgroup members' suffering predict individual differences in costly helping
Neuron
(2010) - et al.
When are grandiose and vulnerable narcissists least helpful?
Personality and Individual Differences
(2014) - et al.
The two faces of narcissus? An empirical comparison of the narcissistic personality inventory and the pathological narcissism inventory
Personality and Individual Differences
(2011) - et al.
Costly third-party punishment in young children
Cognition
(2015) - et al.
Narcissistic leadership
The Leadership Quarterly
(2006)
The neural signature of social norm compliance
Neuron
Impulse control and underlying functions of the left DLPFC mediate age-related and age-independent individual differences in strategic social behavior
Neuron
What does the narcissistic personality inventory really measure?
Assessment
Personality and ethical decision-making in research: The role of perceptions of self and others
Journal of Empirical Research on Human Research Ethics
The evolution of cooperation
Science
Narcissistic admiration and rivalry: Disentangling the bright and dark sides of narcissism
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
The empathy quotient: An investigation of adults with Asperger's syndrome or high functioning autism, and normal sex differences
Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders
Narcissism and Machivalliansism in youth: Implications for development of adaptive and maladaptive behavior
The presence of others, prosocial traits, Machiavellianism
Social Psychology
Ethics and personality: Empathy and narcissism as moderators of ethical decision making in business students
Journal of Education for Business
Narcissism and the motivation to engage in volunteerism
Current Psychology
Threatened egotism, narcissism, self-esteem, and direct and displaced aggression: Does self-love or self-hate lead to violence?
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
A sociocultural approach to narcissism: The case of modern China
European Journal of Personality
Behavioral game theory
Narcissism and romantic attraction
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Understanding the social costs of narcissism: The case of the tragedy of the commons
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
Does self-love lead to love for others? A story of narcissistic game playing
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
A study of narcissism, affiliation, intimacy, and power motives among students in business administration
Psychological Reports
Cited by (0)
- 1
Shared first authors.