Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms
DiscussionIrradiation-induced structural changes in ZnO nanowires
Introduction
The effect of irradiation on nanomaterials is underpinned on the release of streams of energies striking the particle surface and subsequently alters the properties of the microstructural, optical, physical and electrical constituent of the materials [1], [2], [3]. The effect of irradiation can lead to various phenomena such as pressure in the nanowires/nanotubes and fullerene-like essential for the study of pressure-induced transformation at the nanoscale [4], [5]. The most common radiation types in the recent work that can alter the structures of materials are ions [6], [7], [8], [9], [10], [11], [12], [13], [14], [15], electrons [16], [17], [18], [19], [20], [21], [22], [23], [24], neutrons and high energy photon (laser and gamma-ray) [25], [26], [27], [28], [29], [30], [31], [32] with the capability to displace an atom or molecules from their lattice to transform the magnetic [19], [33], electronics [34] and mechanical properties [35], [36], [37], the major factors responsible for the revamping of nanostructures. These irradiations can be used specifically to reorient the morphological phase properties of the semiconductor nanomaterials in a tractable manner as well as restrain defect on their structural surface [38], [39], [40]. The irradiation of semiconductor nanomaterials has been demonstrated to have meritorious effects on the nanostructured materials. The discovery of linear accelerator help to generate high energy beams in Mev capable of steering into the internal target [41]. In a harsh environment, zinc nanocircuitry can withstand the minimum radiation damage. The tolerance ability of the nanomaterial to radiation doses in electronics nanodevices, circuitry, solar cells, and sensors has created a novel research area geared towards space technology chiefly satellites installations and some celestial bodies. These applications have engendered the study of radiation hardness on nanodevices, particle detectors, and solar cells. Nanomaterial electronics components are auspicious in nanodevices owing to its hardness tolerance under MeV photon beams [42], [43], [44], [45], [46], [47].
Semiconductor nanomaterials are broadly classified as (i) 0-dimension (0D) such as nanoparticles, (ii) 1-dimension (1D) such as nanorods/nanowires, nanotube, nanohelices, nanofiber, nanoflower, nanocable, nanobelt, and nanospring (iii) 2-dimensions (2D) such as thin films. The 1D semiconductor nanostructures have been studied intensely due to its wide applications based on its thermal, mechanical, electrical properties as well as their potential in the optoelectronics, piezoelectric transducers, biosensors, photocatalysis, electromechanical, ultraviolet light-emitting diodes, solar cell, gas sensors and electrochemical Nano-devices [48], [49], [50], [51], [52], [53], [54], [55], [56]. In the family of 1 dimensional semiconductors [57], [58], Zinc oxide (ZnO), an n-type (II –VI) semiconductor has been considered as one of the most auspicious nano-based material for sundry applications via photodetector [59], solar cells [60], [61], photonics [62], spintronics [63], gas sensors [64], piezoelectricity [65], energy conversion [66], photodetectors [67], nanomedicine [68], light-emitting diodes [69], optical modulator waveguides [70] and varistor [71]. These applications is owing to its excellent and exceptional features such as morphological form, chemical stability, large direct bandgap (≈3.37 eV), piezoelectricity, optical transparency, biocompatibility, electric conductivity, and a large exciton binding energy (≈60 meV) due to its cost-effectiveness and facile preparations [72], [73], [74], [75], [76]. ZnO has manifolds of morphologies such as nanorods/nanowires, nanotube, nanohelices, nanofiber, nanoflower, nanocable, a nanobelt, and nanospring since the structural formation is self-induced [77], [78]. Zinc oxide nanowires (ZnO-NWs) among others have been noteworthy in the current nanotechnology with sundry and probable applications owing to its enhanced electron transport and high surface to volume ratio [79], [80], [81].
To further explore the unique applications of ZnO-NWs, it is desired by many authors to alter the properties of ZnO-NWs for functional nano-devices. Different methods are adapted currently and in the past years to modify the nanostructures properties of 1 dimensional semiconductors such as alloying, precipitation method [82], [83], doping, plasma treatment, magnetron sputtering [84], [85], [86] ion beam engineering [87], chemical bath deposition [88], [89], [90], pulsed laser deposition [91], chemical vapor deposition [33], [92], [93], [86], template-assisted methods [94], electrochemical deposition [95], molecular beam epitaxy [96] electrodeposition process [97], joule heating method [98], hydrothermal [99], [100], [77], atomic layer deposition [101], beam vapor deposition [102], laser ablation [103], laser ablation-catalytic growth [104], metal-organic chemical vapour deposition [105], microemulsion [106] Vapour-liquid-solid [107], Solvothermal [108].
Energetic ions [109], [78], electrons [110], gamma irradiation [111], [112], [83], and laser irradiations [113], [114], [115] are typically adapted to modify the properties of bulk nanostructured ZnO materials such as thin films for useful applications [116], [117], [118]. It is a misunderstanding that high energy irradiation with nanomaterials has harmful effects. Recent research from the purview of practice and theory reveals that high beam irradiation on nanostructure materials have benignant effects [119], [120], [121], [122], [123], [124], [125]. Morphology and nanostructure materials could be tuned utilizing electron, gamma, laser, and ion beam irradiation for tailoring their optical, physical, electrical, magnetic, and mechanical properties for various applications. Energetic radiation beam collides with nuclei and electrons of target nanostructure materials which transfer their energies to target atoms. Target atoms gain enough kinetic energies to leave its position from crystal, create atomic defects caused to modify their properties [50], [125], [126], [127], [128], [129], [130].
Herein in this review, a survey of the effect of an electron, ion, and gamma irradiation on the structural properties of ZnO-NWs are presented. The impact of an extended range electron, laser, gamma and ion species from light ion (H) to heavy ion irradiation on wurtzite structured ZnO-NWs at different ion energies (keV to MeV), ion fluences, and substrate temperatures are summarized. It is noteworthy that the effect of low, medium, and heavy irradiations on ZnO-NWs is necessary for sundry applications chiefly nanodevices in space engineering sequel to its tolerance in a harsh environment.
Section snippets
Light, medium and heavy ions irradiation-induced structural changes in ZnO-NWs
Many research works have been carried out on the irradiated ZnO-NWs using a broad range of ion species of various ion energies from keV to MeV, ion fluences and substrate temperatures from light, medium to heavy ions. Defects created in nanowire system due to the irradiated beam are quite different from the bulk materials. This is due to the nanosized nature of NWs in 1 dimension altering the dissipation of energy released by the energetic particles [131]. ZnO-NWs has won the attention of many
Conclusion
In summary, ZnO-NWs has been irradiated with light, medium, and heavy ions at different doses and temperature. It was found that at room temperature, light ions created defects in ZnO-NWs whereas, at a higher temperature, ZnO-NWs structure remain stable while heavy ions at higher temperature created nano-humps. Whereas, P ion irradiation has significantly enhanced the structural defects in ZnO-NWs at specific doses. P ion has been observed to be successfully substituted on the sites host
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
Samson O. Aisida acknowledges the NCP-TWAS Postdoc Fellowship award (NCP-CAAD/TWAS_Fellow8408).
I. A. gratefully acknowledges the traveling support by Pakistan Science Foundation (PSF). iThemba LABS and UNESCO-UNISA Africa Chair in Nanosciences are also gratefully acknowledged.
We are thankful for the deanship of scientific research at king Khalid University, Abha Saudi Arabia for their financial support through general research program under project number GRP-222-40.
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