Elsevier

Marine Policy

Volume 117, July 2020, 103039
Marine Policy

Citizen participation in monitoring phytoplankton seawater discolorations

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2018.01.022Get rights and content

Highlights

  • Phytoplankton seawater discolorations may be monitored by citizen observations.

  • Citizen observations may complete routine phytoplankton monitoring networks.

  • The surface area and duration of water discolorations have been evaluated.

  • Interviews of observers demonstrated the citizen concerns about discolorations.

Abstract

A citizen monitoring program (Phenomer) of marine water discolorations caused by high biomass phytoplankton development (Harmful Algal Blooms, HABs) was conducted in 2013, 2014 and 2015 in the coastal waters of Brittany (France). This project aimed to explore the feasibility of acquiring scientifically valuable data on water discolorations phenomena through a citizen science approach, extending the surface area of monitored coastal waters by means of citizen observations. During the three years of the project implementation, respectively 14, 32 and 28 warnings were sampled and recognized as phytoplankton water discolorations. Respectively, 7, 24 and 14 phenomena were observed outside of routine monitoring points. Citizen observations contributed towards evaluating the extension of red discolorations caused by Noctiluca scintillans and the duration and impact on marine fauna of green discolorations of Lepidodinium chlorophorum. A bivalve mortality event coincided with a dark-brown phytoplankton bloom characterized by the dominance of the toxic raphidophytes Heterosigma akashiwo and Pseudochattonella verruculosa, whose presence indicate a new potential hazard in Brittany. Interview analysis of citizen observations showed that the contributors to Phenomer are generally well-informed on environmental issues and concerned about the status of the marine environment. Phenomer demonstrates the complementary value of citizen science programs to routine phytoplankton monitoring, as well as providing scientific information on water discolorations phenomena, whose observations over a large territory have rarely been structured. The advantages and limits shown by the Phenomer project will help to optimize future applications of citizen science approaches for phytoplankton and HAB studies.

Introduction

Phytoplankton blooms in marine ecosystems correspond to high concentrations of eukaryotic single-celled (protist) photosynthetic organisms. Single species of typical bloom-forming microalgal groups, such as dinoflagellates or diatoms, react relatively rapidly to environmental changes (variation of nutrient concentration ratios, water mixing, etc.) due to their high duplication rates, physiological plasticity and life strategy adaptations [40]. Under favorable environmental conditions, which allow cellular duplication, blooms can be observed, generally with high biomass production [8]. The remineralization of this high biomass by bacteria can cause anoxia/hypoxia phenomena, leading to mass mortality of the marine fauna inhabiting the zone where the bloom occurred. Mass mortality of marine fauna can hit wild populations or farmed stocks [15]. If anoxia induced by high biomass-production blooms occurs in aquaculture exploitations, the linked economic activities are strongly affected, with large-scale losses of live fish or shellfish destined for human commercialization and consumption [45]. Massive biomass accumulation can also cause surface seawater discoloration (i.e. green, red, brownish or whitish colors) or foam production, thus altering the appearance and aesthetics of coastal waters. These impressive and sometimes eye-catching natural events can hinder tourism activities (i.e. water sports, leisure, beaches, hotels, restaurants) whose economic benefits depend on the good aesthetics of the water in the coastal area [45]. Tourists are reluctant to visit areas where discolorations are more frequent and intense, hence affecting the local economy. Some blooming species can also metabolize toxins which are directly harmful when released outside the cell (hemolytic, ichthyotoxic, cytotoxic effects) to marine fauna or indirectly for humans who can suffer from Diarrheic (DSP), Paralytic (PSP), Neurotoxic (NSP), Amnesic (ASP), and Azaspiracid (AZP) Shellfish Poisoning as well and Ciguatera Fish Poisoning (CFP) through the consumption of seafood that has bio-accumulated toxic substances. Finally, skin irritations and respiratory problems have been reported in humans who have gotten into contact with aerosols developed after blooms of toxigenic species. All phenomena connected to phytoplankton developments that are detrimental to the ecosystem and/or human health and/or economic activities are classified and known as Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) [15], [45].

Countries in possession of fishery and aquaculture sectors are particularly aware of HABs, and in particular of the toxigenic potential of some phytoplankton species. They therefore implement monitoring activities for toxic phytoplankton species in zones inhabited by natural and cultivated shellfish populations. Despite the problems that phytoplankton discolorations may cause to tourism and wildlife, phytoplankton monitoring systems are not designed for this kind of HAB phenomenon. This is for example the case in France of the REPHY (REseau de surveillance et d′observation du PHYtoplankton et des PHYcotoxines) (http://envlit.ifremer.fr/surveillance/phytoplancton_phycotoxines/presentation) which, since its launch in 1984, is designed to monitor toxic species and not water discolorations. Seawater discolorations can affect relatively small and patchy areas, or can extend across very large (hundreds of kilometers) areas, rendering them visible by satellite [8]. These phenomena occur in different regions of the World Ocean, both in offshore areas (i.e. coccolithophore blooms), and, more frequently, in coastal areas, mainly in semi-confined zones (harbours, estuaries [15], [45]). They can develop rapidly, locally and die out relatively quickly (within a few days) [8]. The ephemeral nature of seawater discoloration phenomena hinders the experimental design of their monitoring. Local phytoplankton monitoring systems are based on fixed sampling stations, with surveys scheduled at regular intervals. This static organization of monitoring systems (with stations often located near shellfish farms to monitor toxic species for sanitary reasons) can cause seawater discolorations to be overlooked. These can occur either between scheduled sample collections (which generally take place every fortnight) or in sites or during periods not usually sampled. Seawater discolorations are often reported in a sporadic and random way, based on personal observations of individuals (scientists or otherwise) aware of the environmental issues associated to such an event.

Citizen observations can potentially provide complementary information to ongoing sanitary monitoring programs of phytoplankton or field campaigns [6]. They contribute towards a better grasp of both the spatial and temporal scales at which water discolorations occur in coastal waters, particularly during the summer. This is the time of year when these phenomena are most likely to develop, and corresponds to the period when there are more people present on the coast. Citizen science is a nexus between science and society, being both a new opportunity for scientists to acquire new data and for the public to interact with science [24], [31]. Although the citizen science movement is well-established, [34], particularly in terrestrial monitoring programs, the engagement of non-professional actors in scientific investigations has dramatically increased in recent years, especially in environmental sciences (ornithology, paleontology, marine and terrestrial biodiversity) (e.g. [4]) that all require large amounts of data from heterogenous sources [27]. Citizen science have been lauded for: i) the education of voluntary participants to environmental issues, ii) providing low-cost data useful for sustainable management decisions [24], iii) empowering citizens to participate more actively in local conservation and management decisions [31], and iv) engaging stakeholders in conservation planning [25].

Marine citizen science monitoring programs are increasingly common, with the public now being able to get involved in the detection and identification of: a) marine macrofauna easily observed from the sea surface (i.e. marine mammals, sharks, jellyfish) or b) marine organisms, which can be observed by ‘citizen’ and scuba divers (i.e. [12], [21]). However, the use of a citizen science approach for studying plankton is not frequently chosen as a tool, compared to the number of classical sanitary monitoring programs for plankton existing worldwide. Nevertheless some examples of the use of a citizen science approach to study phytoplankton exist. Volunteer HAB monitoring programs were launched along the west coast of United States in the early 1990's [2] and more recently along Canada's west coast [35] in response to the onset of human poisoning syndrome (ASP and DSP) events. In 2001, the Phytoplankton Monitoring Network (PMN) was established by the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration of the United States department of Commerce (NOAA), initially as part of South Carolina's Pfiesteria Harmful Algal Bloom (HAB) surveillance program. The scientific objectives of all these programs concern the distribution, phenology and managing of toxigenic species. As for water discolorations, structured management systems implementing a citizen science approach are not common. An example exists in northern Europe, but it is mainly focused on the identification of marine cyanobacteria blooms (e.g. [28]) and not on eukaryotic microalgae. Other citizen-monitoring programs, whose main goal is the detection of changes in sea color, have been adopted (i.e. the Citclops project (http://www.citclops.eu), or Plymouth University's Secchi App – (ref http://www1.plymouth.ac.uk/marine/secchidisk/Pages/default.aspx)). Indeed, people directly (beach activity owners, aquaculture fishermen, scientists) or indirectly (environmentally-aware citizens, non-profit organizations) concerned by water discoloration phenomena point out the absence of a clearly identified interlocutor (institutional or non-government organization) who could receive observations and process the biological and ecological information in order to better manage these phenomena. This shows the need for a structured management system for water discoloration events, coupled with better awareness-raising about the causes and the effects of water discolorations on humans and the environment.

In 2013, a citizen monitoring program focused on water discoloration observations was launched across Brittany (France) waters in parallel to the ongoing phytoplankton and biotoxin monitoring network REPHY. This project, named Phenomer (an acronym for ‘visible phenomena at Sea’, combined with ‘Phenology’, in French) (http://www.phenomer.org/) has been put into practice by both public scientific institutes and non-governmental organization partners [9]. Beyond communication and outreach objectives on phytoplankton and HABs, the overall aim of Phenomer was to introduce citizens to HAB management and scientific analysis. From a marine coastal management point of view, Phenomer creates a working relationship between volunteers and researchers, with the aim of improving and structuring the observations of water discolorations. Indeed, the major objective of Phenomer was to establish if a citizen science approach aimed at the detection of water discolorations may complement sanitary monitoring systems (such as the REPHY in France) which were not specifically conceived for the analysis of such a phenomena (http://www.phenomer.org/). Information gained through Phenomer could also contribute to the economic development (shell farms, tourisms) in coastal areas where water discolorations are less frequent or absent. From a scientific point of view, Phenomer aims to explore the possibility to acquire scientifically valuable data on water discoloration and HABS in general, in particular by means of citizen alerts and with both ecological and sociological scientific purposes. Through the help of volunteer participation, Phenomer aims to i) extend the monitoring survey area for coastal water discolorations and structure their observations, ii) identify general trends where HABs and water discolorations in particular are more likely to occur, thus providing scientific data for current and future research, iii) promote an increased awareness and education of the public on HABs, and iv) analyze the perception of visible phytoplankton blooms by inquiring in what way contributors perceive the harm (i.e. environmental, human health, personal) provoked by these phenomena. This study reports the results from the first three years (2013–2015) of this project.

Section snippets

Communication and outreach on the project

The understanding of a project subject and the acquisition of scientifically valid data through citizen participation are directly dependent on communication actions through appropriate media [42]. In order to recruit a broad spectrum of participants to the Phenomer project, a number of procedures were developed. A project coordinator together with a scientific communication officer were assigned the development and distribution along Brittany's coastline of 30,000, 32,000 and 38,000 leaflets

Citizen observations of water discoloration phenomena

During the spring-summertime periods (March–August) of 2013, 2014, and 2015, the means of contact most used for Phenomer was the internet site, with an increasing number of visitors over time (2621 in 2013, 6987 in 2014, and 11,044 in 2015). During the three years of project implementation citizens made 69, 74 and 88 mostly one-off alerts either by phone, smartphone application or via the website form (Table 1). Out of these alerts, 40, 40 and 47 observations reported by citizens were phenomena

Discussion

The citizen science program Phenomer deployed in Brittany from 2013 to 2015 represents the first structured monitoring program of water discoloration phenomena in the area. It gives a good example of the validity of this new approach for studying and managing HAB phenomena. The project was an opportunity for a first sociological analysis of the audience and their motivation for reporting these phenomena. In addition, it provides new information useful to analyze HAB species phenology and

Conclusions

Results obtained on the Brittany coast of France in the first three years (2013–2015) of deployment of the Phenomer project show that our citizen science approach was very helpful for: 1) signaling water discoloration phenomena not observed by the routine national monitoring, thus showing the complementarity of these two networks; 2) assessing a potential spatial extension of water discolorations, and particularly of those caused by N. scintillans across southern Brittany; 3) giving a time

Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully acknowledge all Phenomer participants (citizens and scientists) who shared discoloration observations and provided data and pictures of the phytoplankton blooms. The communication service of Ifremer/Nantes, and in particular Sophie Pilven, is greatly acknowledged for its support for all communication actions and information dissemination of the project. The authors kindly thank Elisabeth Nézan and Nicolas Chomérat (Ifremer LER/BO Concarneau) for their help in the

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