High-quality heat flow determination from the crystalline basement of the south-east margin of North China Craton

doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2016.01.009

Journal of Asian Earth Sciences

Volume 118, 15 March 2016, Pages 1-10

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2016.01.009 Get rights and content

Highlights

•
Borehole temperature logs and the thermal parameters were reported.
•
Two high-quality heat-flow values were calculated.
•
Vertical heat flow profiles of the borehole LZ and DR were discussed in detail.
•
The geodynamic implications of these heat-flow data were discussed.

Abstract

Very few of heat flow data have come from the crystalline basement in the North China Craton but rather from boreholes in the sedimentary cover of oil–gas basins. Explorations for hot dry rock (HDR) geothermal resources and porphyry gold deposits in eastern China offer now valuable opportunities to study the terrestrial heat flow in the crystalline basement. In this study, we obtained continuous temperature logs from two boreholes (the LZ borehole with a depth of 3471 m and the DR borehole with a depth of 2179 m) located in the south-east margin of the North China Craton. The boreholes have experienced long shut-in times (442 days and 261 days for the LZ borehole and DR borehole, respectively); thus, it can be expected that the temperature conditions have re-equilibrated after drilling and drill-mud circulation. Rock thermal conductivity and radiogenic heat production were measured for 68 crystalline rock samples from these two boreholes. The measured heat-flow density was determined to be 71.8 ± 2.3 mW m⁻² (for the LZ borehole) and 91.5 ± 1.2 mW m⁻² (for the DR borehole). The heat flow for the LZ borehole is close to the value of 75 mW m⁻² determined in the Chinese Continental Scientific Drilling main hole (CCSD MH), both being in the Sulu-Dabie orogenic belt and thus able to verify each other. The value for the DR borehole is higher than the above two values, which supports former high heat-flow values determined in the Bohai Bay Basin.

Introduction

Geothermal studies in the North China Craton (NCC) started from 1970s. The first group of terrestrial heat-flow data was published by the Geothermal Research Division, Institute of Geology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (1979). Since then, more heat-flow data have been reported for the continental area of China. These data have been shown on several heat-flow maps (Wang and Huang, 1988, Wang and Huang, 1990, Hu et al., 2000, Wang et al., 2012). According to our latest statistics of December 2014, without counting the heat flow estimated from oil test temperature, 402 data have been compiled in the NCC (Fig. 1). Most of the heat-flow data are from the sedimentary cover of petroliferous sedimentary basins. So far, no heat-flow data in the NCC have been reported from the continuous temperature logs and thermophysical property analysis of the crystalline basement. The existing data of the NCC show a large scatter with values ranging from 25.5 to 140.0 mW m⁻². Approximately 65% of the data were determined using temperature data from a shallow depth (⩽1 km). However, temperatures measured within the shallow sedimentary rocks of high permeability and porosity could be affected by advective heat transport processes overprinting the terrestrial heat flow, which, by definition, is the heat transferred by conduction (diffusion). It is expected that advective overprint is weaker in the crystalline basement due to the generally low rock permeability and porosity (Guillou-Frottier et al., 2013, Jessop, 1993, Nathenson and Guffanti, 1988).

The LZ borehole (119°59′42″E, 37°24′16″N) located in the Jiaodong Peninsula, 30 km east of the Tan-Lu Fault Zone and 90 km north-west of the Sulu-Dabie orogenic belt, is an exploration borehole for gold mines drilled by Shandong Gold Mining Co., Ltd. This borehole was cased down to 500.75 m and the bottom depth is 4006.17 m. The DR borehole (118°32′45″, 37°40′21″) located at the Jiyang Depression, Bohai Bay Basin, approximately 100 km west of the Tan-Lu Fault Zone, is an exploration borehole for hot dry rock geothermal resources and was drilled by Shandong Provincial Lubei Geo-engineering Exploration Institute. The borehole was cased down to 2003.75 m. The bottom depth is 2500.58 m.

This study reports the borehole temperature logs and the measured thermophysical parameters of the crystalline basement, as well as the vertical variations of calculated heat-flow values. A comparison is made with results from the Chinese Continental Scientific Drilling main hole (CCSD MH), which is located in the Dabie-Sulu Orogenic Belt (He et al., 2008). Finally, some geodynamical implications of the heat-flow data are given.

Section snippets

Geological setting

The study area is located at the south-east margin of the NCC and divided into two parts by the Tan-Lu Fault Zone (Fig. 1). The western part belongs to the Jiyang Depression, Bohai Bay Basin and the eastern one is the Jiaodong Peninsula. The Jiyang Depression is located in the south-east of the Bohai Basin, which is a Cenozoic rifted basin that originated from regional extension induced by active mantle convection. The Jiaodong Peninsula comprises two tectonic units: the NCC to the north and

Temperature logging

High-quality heat-flow values are indispensable in the study of the regional thermal state, including lithosphere properties (Morgan and Gosnold, 1989). Continuous precise temperature logs measured in the borehole and thermal conductivity measured in the laboratory on drill cores are two ideal conditions for determining heat-flow density (Blackwell and Steele, 1989, Sass et al., 1971). Moreover, the time between the cessation of drilling and the temperature measurement needs to be long enough

Thermal conductivity measurement

In total, 47 core samples from the LZ borehole were collected from the surface to the bottom, with a depth interval of 200 m. From the DR borehole, 21 samples were collected, from the depth of 1200 m to the bottom. These 68 samples contain the main crystalline rock types in these two boreholes. The specific numbers of samples for different lithology are listed in Table 1 as the numbers in brackets.

The thermal conductivity was measured using TCS (Thermal Conductivity Scanning), a high precision

Radiogenic heat production

Approximately 98% of geothermal radiogenic heat in the Earth’s crust arises from the decay of isotopes of uranium (²³⁸U), thorium (²³²Th) and potassium (⁴⁰K) (Wollenberg and Smith, 1987). In this study, concentrations of uranium, thorium and potassium for 68 cores and 11 bags of cuttings were measured to determine the heat production. The specific numbers of samples for different lithologies are listed in Table 1 (in brackets). Concentrations of uranium and thorium were acquired via inductively

Heat flow determination

Heat flow was calculated by multiplying the least-square temperature gradient with the thermal conductivity. The thermal conductivity at depth intervals with no samples was given by a linear interpolation for adjacent samples with the same lithology. All thermal-conductivity values of crystalline rocks were corrected for temperature. The sediment layers had no core samples in the DR borehole, so the thermal conductivity from the adjacent area was used as follows: the mean conductivity of the

The relatively high heat-flow values

A major question at present is whether the heat flow of the Jiaodong Peninsula is really lower than that of the neighboring areas. Previous geothermal measurements in the south-east margin of the NCC were mainly made in the Bohai Bay Basin to the west of the Tan-Lu Fault Zone, and only four heat-flow values were reported for the Jiaodong Peninsula to the east of the Tan-Lu Fault Zone (Zu et al., 1996, Hu et al., 2000, Gong et al., 2003). These unevenly distributed data indicated that the

Conclusions

Based on the above, the following conclusions can be made.

(1)
The heat-flow values of the LZ borehole and the DR borehole were determined to be 71.8 ± 2.3 mW m⁻² and 91.5 ± 1.2 mW m⁻², respectively. These two heat flow values were calculated from the continuous precise temperature logs and thermal conductivity of drill cores.
(2)
The vertical heat flow variation and comparison with previous heat-flow data both indicated that the heat flow determined from a shallow depth in sedimentary layers might be

Acknowledgements

We thank the Shandong Gold Mining Co., Lt and Shandong Provincial Lubei Geo-engineering Exploration Institute for assisting with the temperature logging and sample collections. This research is supported by National High Technology Research and Development Program of China (No. 2012AA052801) and the China Geological Survey (No. 12120113077900). We thank the editor Dapeng Zhao, Ph.D., and the four anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments and constructive suggestions, which significantly

References (62)

L. Chen
Concordant structural variations from the surface to the base of the upper mantle in the North China Craton and its tectonic implications
Lithos
(2010)
L. Chen et al.
Seismic evidence for significant lateral variations in lithospheric thickness beneath the central and western North China Craton
Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.
(2009)
L. Chen et al.
Distinct lateral variation of lithospheric thickness in the Northeastern North China Craton
Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.
(2008)
Y. Deng et al.
Geophysical evidence on segmentation of the Tancheng-Lujiang fault and its implications on the lithosphere evolution in East China
J. Asian Earth Sci.
(2013)
W.M. Fan et al.
Post-orogenic bimodal volcanism along the Sulu orogenic belt in eastern China
Phys. Chem. Earth A – Solid Earth Geodesy
(2001)
C.J.N. Fletcher et al.
Geological and isotopic constraints on the timing of movement in the Tan-Lu Fault Zone, northeastern China
J. SE Asian Earth Sci.
(1995)
L. Guillou-Frottier et al.
Structure of hydrothermal convection in the Upper Rhine Graben as inferred from corrected temperature data and basin-scale numerical models
J. Volcanol. Geoth. Res.
(2013)
H. Gu et al.
Spatial and temporal distribution of Mesozoic adakitic rocks along the Tan-Lu fault, Eastern China: constraints on the initiation of lithospheric thinning
Lithos
(2013)
L. He
Thermal regime of the North China Craton: implications for craton destruction
Earth Sci. Rev.
(2015)
L. He et al.
Radiogenic heat production in the lithosphere of Sulu ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic belt
Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.
(2009)

S. Hu et al.

Heat flow in the continental area of China: a new data set

Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.

(2000)

S. Lu et al.

Precambrian metamorphic basement and sedimentary cover of the North China Craton: a review

Precambr. Res.

(2008)

L. Ma et al.

Lithospheric and asthenospheric sources of lamprophyres in the Jiaodong Peninsula: a consequence of rapid lithospheric thinning beneath the North China Craton

Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta

(2014)

R.C. Newton et al.

Hypersaline fluids in Precambrian deep-crustal metamorphism

Precambr. Res.

(1998)

Y.A. Popov et al.

New geothermal data from the Kola superdeep well SG-3

Tectonophysics

(1999)

Y.A. Popov et al.

Characterization of rock thermal conductivity by high-resolution optical scanning

Geothermics

(1999)

N. Qiu et al.

Geothermal evidence of Meso-Cenozoic lithosphere thinning in the Jiyang sub-basin, Bohai Bay Basin, eastern North China Craton

Gondwana Res.

(2014)

S.K. Rhee

Porosity–thermal conductivity correlations for ceramic materials

Mater. Sci. Eng.

(1975)

Y. Tang et al.

Differential destruction of the North China Craton: a tectonic perspective

J. Asian Earth Sci.

(2013)

Y. Tian et al.

Destruction mechanism of the North China Craton: insight from P and S wave mantle tomography

J. Asian Earth Sci.

(2011)

H. Vosteen et al.

Influence of temperature on thermal conductivity, thermal capacity and thermal diffusivity for different types of rock

Phys. Chem. Earth: A/B/C

(2003)

R.Y. Zhang et al.

The Dabie-Sulu continental collision zone: a comprehensive review

Gondwana Res.

(2009)

G. Zhao et al.

Lithotectonic elements of Precambrian basement in the North China Craton: review and tectonic implications

Gondwana Res.

(2013)

R. Zhu et al.

Timing of destruction of the North China Craton

Lithos

(2012)

F. Birch

Heat from radioactivity

Nucl. Geol.

(1954)

D. Blackwell et al.

Thermal conductivity of sedimentary rocks: measurement and significance

E.C. Bullard

The time necessary for a bore hole to attain temperature equilibrium

Geophys. J. Int.

(1947)

R.W. Carlson et al.

Physical, chemical, and chronological characteristics of continental mantle

Rev. Geophys.

(2005)

C. Chang

Geological characteristics and distribution patterns of hydrocarbon deposits in the Bohai Bay Basin, east China

Mar. Pet. Geol.

(1991)

D.S. Chapman et al.

Thermal state of the continental lower crust

L. Chen et al.

A thinned lithospheric image of the Tan-Lu Fault Zone, eastern China: constructed from wave equation based receiver function migration

J. Geophys. Res.: Solid Earth (1978–2012)

(2006)

Cited by (33)

Terrestrial heat flow measurement and numerical simulation of lithospheric thermal structure in western Sichuan, China
2023, Geoenergy Science and Engineering
The western Sichuan in the eastern Qinghai-Tibet plateau has significant geothermal potential. Heat flow is one of the most important parameters in geothermic, its measurement can help obtain a better understanding of the regional lithospheric thermal structure. In this study, we reported 4 heat flow data based on the continuous steady-state temperature logging and rock thermal conductivity test, including two class-A and two class-D data. Furthermore, we calculated the lithospheric thermal structure by a 2D steady-state thermal conduction equation in COMSOL, analyzing the lateral differences of lithospheric thermal structure in the eastern Qinghai-Tibet plateau. Our study has determined that the heat flow values in the western Sichuan range from 94.7 to 116.2 mW/m², with a corresponding geothermal gradient of 32.1–37.3 °C/km. Moreover, numerical simulation results indicate significant differences in lithospheric thermal structure between western Sichuan and Sichuan Basin, where the Longmen Shan fault zone is a crucial regional tectonic boundary and a significant temperature gradient zone. Specifically, the Moho temperature in the western Sichuan region ranges from 1000 to 1200 °C with an average temperature of 1060 °C, while the Sichuan Basin ranges from 600 to 700 °C. Besides, the thermal lithosphere thickness in the western Sichuan and the Sichuan Basin is 88–97 km and 105–110 km, respectively. These observations suggest that the western Sichuan region is characterized by high thermal anomaly and provide theoretical evidence for the geodynamic and geothermal development in this area. Finally, we suggest that the high thermal anomaly in western Sichuan is the result of a combination of factors, such as thickened crust, high radioactive heat production, and shear frictional heating from deep fault and so on.
Terrestrial heat flow of Jizhong depression, China, Western Bohai Bay basin and its influencing factors
2021, Geothermics
Citation Excerpt :
The area experienced a stable tectonic setting from the middle Proterozoic to the end of the Paleozoic before an important tectonic transition period occurred in the Mesozoic, uplifting the basin stratum. During the Cenozoic, the basin was more stable and sedimentation dominated the area(Chang, 1991; Jiang et al., 2016; Shi Kuo et al., 2011) (; ; ). The crystalline basement was primarily composed of gneiss and amphibolite, mainly metamorphosed sandstone and mudstone (2.4 Ga).
The Jizhong depression in the western Bohai Bay Basin has a high thermal state. Heat flow is one of the most important parameters in geothermics, its measurement can help obtain a better understanding of the regional lithospheric thermal structure. In this study, continuous steady-state temperature logs were obtained from 14 deep boreholes. 136 core samples were measured for thermal conductivity and radiogenic heat production. The temperature data indicated that heat transfer within the sedimentary layer was dominated by heat conduction, with a geothermal gradient of approximately 31.5 ℃•km⁻¹. The gradient value was almost 0 ℃•km⁻¹ in the dolomite strata, due to their abnormally high thermal conductivity and permeability. Average thermal conductivity values was 2.46, 5.51 and 3.21 W•m⁻¹•K⁻¹, and the radiogenic heat production were 1.05, 0.26, and 0.74 μW•m⁻³ for the sandstone, dolomite and metamorphic rocks, respectively. Higher heat flow in the Jizhong depression is mainly distributed around the subsurface structure of sub-uplift region, which is near the fault between the sub-uplift region and the sub-depression region, and the value can reach 120.0 mW•m⁻². With an increase in the dolomite buried depths or an increase in the overlying sandstone thickness, the surface heat flow value decreases. Finally, we discuss the factors influencing the shallow temperature: the lateral sediment thickness variations can markedly influence the temperature distribution. The influence of magma activity that happened long ago can be neglected.
Three-dimensional shear-wave velocity structure under the Weifang segment of the Tanlu fault zone in eastern China inferred from ambient noise tomography with a short-period dense seismic array
2020, Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors
Citation Excerpt :
The hot material upwelling process could accompany Mesozoic-Cenozoic local-scale extension that might result in the thinning of the crust (Chen et al., 2006). Jiang et al. (2016) measured two high heat-flow values of 71.8 mWm−2 and 91.5 mWm−2 near the Weifang segment. These high values may be interpreted as the North China Craton destruction since late Mesozoic and Cenozoic (Zhu et al., 2011, 2012; He, 2015) and the extensional activity of the Tanlu fault zone related to the asthenosphere upwelling from late Cretaceous to Tertiary (Gong et al., 2003).
In this study continuous waveforms are observed at a short-period dense seismic array which consisted of 302 stations in the Weifang segment of the Tanlu fault zone from August to October 2017. A total of 122,302 Rayleigh wave phase velocity dispersion curves at 1.0–7.5 s periods are extracted to infer a high-resolution shear-wave tomography model of the shallow crust under the region. Our model well depicts surface geological structural features and has strong lateral heterogeneities in and around the fault zone. Both Weibei and Weifang depressions are imaged as striking low-velocity anomalies above ~2–3 km depth, possibly reflecting the Quaternary sedimentary layers, but the deeper low-velocity anomaly under the Weifang depression could indicate a channel for hot material upwelling in the crust. Wenxian and Gongdanshan uplifts are imaged as high-velocity anomalies down to 8 km depth, possibly indicating the existence of the Paleozoic crystalline basement rocks. A continuous high-velocity anomaly appears under the Changle volcano, which may be attributed to a magma system solidified in the shallow crust. The western and eastern boundaries of the Tanlu fault zone, where surface mapped faults exist, are clearly imaged as low-velocity anomalies, further demonstrating that the fault zone serves as a channel for hot material upwelling into the shallow crust through the middle and lower crust from the mantle. The upwelling processes may be related to mantle dynamics of the big mantle wedge caused by stagnation and dehydration of the subducted Pacific slab in the mantle transition zone under the region.
Teleseismic P-wave crustal tomography of the Weifang segment on the Tanlu fault zone: A case study based on short-period dense seismic array experiment
2020, Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors
The 1896 high-quality relative travel-time residuals are collected by applying the Multi-Channel Cross-Correlation technique to the waveform data of teleseismic events recorded by a short-period dense seismic array consisting of 302 stations in the Weifang segment of the Tanlu fault zone. Using the Fast Marching Teleseismic Tomography technique, these residuals are inverted for a fine P-wave crustal velocity model under the study region down to 30 km depth with the resolution of ~20 km in horizontal directions and ~30 km in depth. We image obvious high-velocity anomalies to the west of the fault zone from the surface down to a depth of 30 km, and striking low-velocity anomalies appear within the fault zone around 36.5°N where the Changle volcano exists on the surface, whilst to the east velocity anomalies exhibit a complicated pattern. Meanwhile, our tomographic images roughly show a boundary between the fault zone and its surrounding areas. We infer that the fault zone provides a plausible channel for continuous upwelling of hot and wet materials from the mantle to the surface when it intruded into the crust. The process of upwelling of hot and wet materials from the mantle could be associated with mantle dynamics of the big mantle wedge due to the stagnation and dehydration of the subducted Pacific slab in the mantle transition zone under the region. Our present study demonstrates that it is possible that a fine crustal velocity structure can be obtained by teleseismic tomography with a short-period dense seismic array.
Radiogenic heat production variations in the Gonghe basin, northeastern Tibetan Plateau: Implications for the origin of high-temperature geothermal resources
2020, Renewable Energy
Citation Excerpt :
The test was conducted according to the QC reference material GB/T14506.30–2010 and GB/T14056.11–2011. These methods have been extensively used in other studies [42–45]. The radioisotope measurement results show large variations in the contents of thorium and uranium, which ranges from 3.4 to 40.9 ppm (with a mean of 19.6 ppm) and 1.4–16.2 ppm (which yields a mean of 6.1 ppm), respectively.
Hot dry rock is an almost inexhaustible source of geothermal energy. Since the first attempt to extract thermal energy from hot dry rock in America in the 1970s, successive studies have been conducted in many countries. Recently, high-temperature rock (exceeding 180 °C) was drilled in the Gonghe basin, northeastern Tibetan Plateau, marking a significant breakthrough in the exploration of hot dry rock resources in China. A proper understanding of the origin of the hot dry rock in the Gonghe basin is essential to the evaluation of the geothermal resource potential and to the establishment of an enhanced geothermal system in the basin.
In the present research, we attempt to seek clues from the radiogenic heat production of the rocks. In all, 52 core samples collected from the main boreholes in the Gonghe basin were measured for the concentrations of radioisotopes. The heat production values were determined to be 1.21–2.02 μW m⁻³ for the sedimentary rocks, yielding an arithmetic mean of 1.67 ± 0.29 μW m⁻³, and 1.17–5.81 μW m⁻³ for the basal granitic rocks, yielding a mean of 3.20 ± 1.07 μW m⁻³. The results show that the radiogenic heat production of the granitic rocks is approximately that of global Mesozoic-Cenozoic granites, which is further corroborated by an extensive compilation of heat production data for granitic rocks in the immediate vicinity of the study area (average of 2.07 ± 0.97 μW m⁻³, n = 136). Based on the heat production data sets combined with available geological and geophysical information, the crustal heat production contribution is determined. The results show that the heat contribution from the crust is about 48.3 mW m⁻², accounting for ∼47.3% of terrestrial heat flow. Compared with the regional background heat flow, the high heat flow in the Gonghe basin may be attributed to an additional heat flow contribution (∼27 mW m⁻²) from a heat anomaly (probably related to partial melting) at shallow depth, which is evidenced by the low-resistivity anomalies in the magnetotelluric survey results. Thus, this study emphasizes that the anomalous heat flow and the hot dry rock geothermal resources in the Gonghe basin may be the combined effects of the radiogenic heat contribution from the thickened crust and the heat contribution from a local heat anomaly beneath the Gonghe basin.
Prediction of geotemperatures in coal-bearing strata and implications for coal bed methane accumulation in the Bide-Santang basin, western Guizhou, China
2020, International Journal of Mining Science and Technology
Citation Excerpt :
Temperature is a key geological parameter in fossil energy exploration and exploitation [1,2]. Geothermal research presently focuses on the factors that control the distribution of formation temperatures, geothermal gradients, and terrestrial heat flow and has recently received considerable attention related to the exploration for and exploitation of coal, petroleum, and natural gas [3–13]. The present-day geothermal fields of coal-accumulating basins significantly influence the mining of coal resources and the occurrence and migration characteristics of coal bed methane (CBM) [14,15].
The geothermal fields of coal-bearing strata have become a key topic in geological research into coal and coal bed methane (CBM). Based on temperature data from 135 boreholes that penetrate the Upper Permian coal-bearing strata in the Bide-Santang basin, western Guizhou, the precisions of geothermal predictions made using a geothermal gradient model and a gray sequence GM(1,1) model are analyzed and compared. The results indicate that the gray sequence GM(1,1) model is more appropriate for the prediction of geothermal fields. The GM(1,1) model is used to predict the geothermal field at three levels with depths of 500, 1000, and 1500 m, as well as within the No. 6, No. 16, and No. 27 coal seams. The results indicate that the geotemperatures of the 500 m depth level are between 21.0 and 30.0 °C, indicating no heat damage; the geotemperatures of the 1000 m depth level are between 29.4 and 44.7 °C, indicating the first level of heat damage; and the geotemperatures of the 1500 m depth level are between 35.6 and 63.4 °C, indicating the second level of heat damage. The CBM contents are positively correlated with the geotemperatures of the coal seams. The target area for CBM development is identified.

View all citing articles on Scopus

View full text

High-quality heat flow determination from the crystalline basement of the south-east margin of North China Craton

Highlights

Abstract

Introduction

Section snippets

Geological setting

Temperature logging

Thermal conductivity measurement

Radiogenic heat production

Heat flow determination

The relatively high heat-flow values

Conclusions

Acknowledgements

Lithos

Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.

Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.

J. Asian Earth Sci.

Phys. Chem. Earth A – Solid Earth Geodesy

J. SE Asian Earth Sci.

J. Volcanol. Geoth. Res.

Lithos

Earth Sci. Rev.

Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.

Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.

Precambr. Res.

Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta

Precambr. Res.

Tectonophysics

Geothermics

Gondwana Res.

Mater. Sci. Eng.

J. Asian Earth Sci.

J. Asian Earth Sci.

Phys. Chem. Earth: A/B/C

Gondwana Res.

Gondwana Res.

Lithos

Heat from radioactivity

Nucl. Geol.

Thermal conductivity of sedimentary rocks: measurement and significance

The time necessary for a bore hole to attain temperature equilibrium

Geophys. J. Int.

Physical, chemical, and chronological characteristics of continental mantle

Rev. Geophys.

Geological characteristics and distribution patterns of hydrocarbon deposits in the Bohai Bay Basin, east China

Mar. Pet. Geol.

Thermal state of the continental lower crust

A thinned lithospheric image of the Tan-Lu Fault Zone, eastern China: constructed from wave equation based receiver function migration

J. Geophys. Res.: Solid Earth (1978–2012)