Incentives to adopt irrigation water saving measures for wetlands preservation: An integrated basin scale analysis
Highlights
► This paper addresses the competition for water between irrigation and wetlands in central Iran. ► A basin scale framework is used to analyze incentives for water conserving technology uptake. ► Irrigation investment subsidies are examined to reward farmers for water conservation. ► Wetland conservation policies are found to improve environmental benefits and welfare. ► Methods presented are applicable for examining water allocation issues in other basins.
Introduction
Wetlands are an important environmental resource in many parts of the world (Smardon, 2009). Their open-access nature and public-good characteristics often cause them to be undervalued in decisions relating to their use and conservation (Akter et al., 2009). Wetlands provide a wide and diverse range of environmental services including habitat for endangered species, flood protection, water purification, amenities and recreational opportunities (Woodward and Wui, 2001). These services typically have a low to zero market price (Brouwer et al., 1999), and in some cases may provide services for which resource users have a greater willingness to pay than the opportunity cost of the same water if used for agricultural production (De Laporte, 2007, Smardon, 2009); This characteristic of wetlands gives rise to undervalued losses in wetland area when policy decisions promote irrigation uses (De Laporte, 2007, Mallawaarachchi et al., 2001).
Wetlands preservation faces growing challenges in an era of increased scarcity as a result of drought, climate change or increased water uses by competitors in river basins (UN, 2009). Wetlands represent an interface between the catchment area and the aquatic environment (Hattermann et al., 2006). Dams, diversions and river management reduce flooding to wetlands, altering their ecology, and contributing to poor health of aquatic biota (Kingsford, 2000). Conflict between irrigated agriculture and wetland services are a classic case of competition for scarce water (Allan, 2003) especially in developing dry countries where irrigation can account for 90% or more of water withdrawals (Kijne et al., 2003). Despite the importance of wetlands, agriculture is the strategic water-using sector that supports food security planning in many countries (FAO, 2006). That is particularly important in light of rapidly rising non-agricultural water uses and periodic droughts linked to climate variability and climate change (IPCC, 2007, Kijne et al., 2003, OECD, 2006). The future of water allocated for the protection and security of wetlands depend on economic, social, and political development trends and the results of litigation, legislative, and administrative debates (Smardon, 2009). Policy makers need economic evaluation measures to make decisions on preservation of wetlands versus the demands for water by irrigated agriculture (Qureshi et al., 2010a, Ringler and Cai, 2006).
An improved understanding of the interaction between river diversions for agriculture, floodplain ecology, and investigations into ecological impacts of management practices is essential to avoid further loss of wetlands (Kingsford, 2000). Integrating riparian water uses and wetlands’ needs into eco-hydrological river basin processes is a state-of-the arts management approach to support ecosystem functions related to flood events while producing economic benefits for the local population (Hattermann et al., 2006, Nakamura, 2003, O’Neill et al., 1997, Ringler and Cai, 2006). Recent studies show that more widespread use of a river basin scale analysis would considerably enhance the effectiveness of water resource management initiatives. Examples are found, for instance, in Australia (Mainuddin et al., 2007, Qureshi et al., 2010b), USA (Brinegar and Ward, 2009), Turkey (Gürlük and Ward, 2009), South Africa (Jonker, 2007), Brazil (Maneta et al., 2009), France (Lanini et al., 2004), Spain (Pulido-Velazquez et al., 2008), Botswana (Swatuk and Motsholapheko, 2008), and Egypt (Gohar and Ward, 2010).
Despite these contributions described above, few studies have examined policy options available for resolving the competition for water between agriculture and other water using sectors while focusing special attention on requirements for and water needs for wetlands water supply. The objective of this paper is to examine alternative policy approaches to promote farmers’ adoption of water conservation measures that would make saved water available for wetlands ecological functions under conditions of climate variability. Our objective is implemented through the development of an integrated basin analysis, in which least cost measures for securing environmental flows to sustain wetlands are examined for the Zayandeh-Rud River Basin of central Iran (Fig. 1).
Section snippets
Study area
Water resources management in the Zayandeh-Rud River Basin (ZRB) in central Iran faces serious choices conflicts or trade-offs between consumptive and environmental water uses (Fig. 1). The basin has an area just over 42,000 square kilometers, with 57% in flat lands containing a wide range of water uses and the other 43% in more mountainous landscapes. The ZRB has an average rainfall of 130 mm and a monthly average temperature ranging from 3 °C to 29 °C (IWMI, 2009). The Zayandeh-Rud (ZR) is the
Criteria for water policy
An important policy debate for a sustainable water and wetland conservation centers on choices that provide economic incentives for existing water users to save water (Peck et al., 2004, Sisto, 2009), especially where the economic value of the saved water made available for alternative uses would be considerable. The need for these incentives is especially pronounced where poorly defined or administered water rights make it unlikely that existing water users benefit from saving water. Examples
Methodology
We introduce an integrated basin scale analysis to support assessment of alternative policy options affecting water uses and resources in a watershed in central Iran. This model integrates the hydrology, agronomy, institutions, economics, and policy choices at the basin scale. Its main structure is based on similar recent studies carried out in integrated river basin analysis (e.g., Pulido-Velazquez et al., 2008). Physical interactions are integrated among water uses. These include competing
Irrigated lands
The ZRB includes 21 irrigation districts (Fig. 1). Farmers for the most part practice conjunctive use of ground and surface water in these districts (Safavi et al., 2010). Both modern and traditional irrigation networks provide surface irrigation water. In addition, the ZRB’s water is conveyed to several districts in the basin by canals and distributed to their irrigated land through special secondary irrigation networks (e.g., NMD and EBD shown in Fig. 1). The total irrigated land in the basin
Overview
Results are presented for three policy options under each of two water supply scenarios, for a total of six water supply-policy combinations. Each policy and each water supply scenario result in unique hydrologic, agronomic, and economic outcomes, of which each shows a different adoption by farmers of irrigation water conservation measures. Results are shown for hydrology (Table 3, Table 4), farm adoption of irrigated land use (Table 5, Table 6), and economic and policy dimensions (Table 7,
Conclusions
This paper presents alternative policy approaches to promote farmers’ adoption of irrigation water conservation measures to preserve wetlands under conditions of potential climate change in the arid countries. Our results calculate impacts from four policy measures that provide economic incentives to agriculture to reduce its use by enough to supply the needed amount of water for wetlands in Central Iran.
Two policies to support wetland demands for water are examined (a) reduced agricultural
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful for financial and official support for this work by Agricultural and Natural Resource Research Center of Esfahan (Iran), Department of Agricultural Economics in Shiraz University (Iran), and the New Mexico Agricultural Experiment Station (USA). The authors extend thanks to an anonymous reviewer for insights that would have otherwise been missed
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