In vivo antioxidant activity of grape, pomace and wine from three red varieties grown in Argentina: Its relationship to phenolic profile
Introduction
Epidemiologic studies provide convincing evidence that diets rich in plant foods (fruits, vegetables, grains and derivative products from fruits, vegetables and grains) are associated with the prevention or delay of chronic degenerative diseases, such as atherosclerosis, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and type 2 diabetes (Spormann et al., 2008). In the last decades oxidative stress has been proposed to play a fundamental role in these pathologies. The oxidative stress is defined as an imbalance between reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and the inability of the antioxidant biological system to detoxify these free radicals. As a result, this increased level of ROS leads cell to an oxidative stress state, which impacts on a variety of biochemical and physiological processes (Gutteridge & Halliwell, 2000).
In addition to vitamins and minerals, foods obtained from plant kingdom are rich in polyphenols, bioactive compounds capable of reducing the oxidative stress in cells. This biological property is mainly attributed to their behaviour as powerful antioxidants. Among the sources of exogenous natural antioxidants, grapes, grape pomace and wines from red varieties of Vitis vinifera L. have received much attention because of their high concentration and great variety of phenolic compounds.
Red grape polyphenols are mainly flavonoid (anthocyanins, flavonols and flavanols) and non-flavonoid compounds (phenolic acids like hydroxycinnamic and hydroxybenzoic acids and stilbenes), all of them are well known for their strong biological action (Monagas, Bartolomé, & Gómez-Cordovés, 2005). These compounds are transferred from the solid parts of the grape into the wine during winemaking operations (crushing, maceration and fermentation). The grape pomace is obtained from the winery industry as a solid waste after alcoholic fermentation, and it is mainly constituted by berry skins and seeds. This residue is characterised by a high phenolic content because of poor extraction during the winemaking process. Since about 80% of the worldwide grape production is used in winemaking and about 25% of the weight of processed grapes remains as pomace, the wine industry produces millions of tons of this residue, which represents an ecological and economical issue of waste management. Particular attention is currently being paid to the exploitation of this winery byproduct because it is considered an alternative and inexpensive source for obtaining natural phenolic compounds with potential application as food antioxidants (Fontana, Antoniolli, & Bottini, 2013).
Chemical antioxidant activity assays (such as FRAP-ferric reducing antioxidant power, TEAC-trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity) are used extensively to evaluate the potential bioactivity of plant foods, yet they do not mimic the complexity of biological systems. The cellular antioxidant activity assay was developed to be a more biologically relevant model to measure antioxidant activity. This approach reflects the cellular physiological conditions and considers the bioavailability and metabolism issues, which influence the net response of the phenolic compounds present in those samples. Among the cell culture models used to support antioxidant research prior to expensive and time-consuming animal studies and human clinical trials, the eukaryotic yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae has been proposed for a rapid screening of AC in wine and food (Baroni et al, 2012, Ignea et al, 2013, López de Lerma et al, 2013, Martorell et al, 2011, Peinado et al, 2013, Stinco et al, 2015). Protective effect of polyphenols against oxidising substances in cells is related to a large number of biological mechanisms, including antioxidant enzyme induction such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione reductase (GR) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx). These endogenous antioxidants are involved in the metabolism of glutathione (GSH), an important non-enzymatic antioxidant involved in cellular detoxification to maintain redox status (López-Alarcón & Denicola, 2013).
Nowadays, it is known that AC cannot be easily predicted by the content of a specific group of compounds or by measuring a single substance (Baroni et al., 2012). Furthermore, this activity is the result of a synergistic and antagonistic effect of different polyphenols and with other components of the food matrix or of the organism (Rohn, Rawel, & Kroll, 2004). Hence, we need to know the relative contribution of entire phenolic profile to the AC of these exogenous natural antioxidants in order to explain their bioactive behaviour. Accordingly, we propose the use of multiple regression analyses (MRA), a mathematical tool that quantifies the relationship between a dependent variable and twoor more independent variables. Furthermore, MRA allows determining the contribution of each variable to the model; thus, it allows us to identify the key phenolic compounds that contribute to the biological activity observed.
Phenolic profile is strongly affected both quantitatively and qualitatively by the particular grape variety, ripeness, environmental factors and winemaking technological procedure. Although there are a large number of studies that focus on polyphenols and their relationship with winemaking technology, understanding changes in phenolic profile has been always a challenge due to complexity and diversity of these compounds in red wines (Borazan & Bozan, 2013). Moreover, literature is scarce in terms of the association found/shown between these changes and the AC observed. Studies on the possible health benefits of grape and its derivates and on the mechanism underlying these benefits must be accompanied by a comprehensive characterisation of phenol profile.
In the present work we characterised the phenolic profile of grapes (raw material), pomaces (byproducts) and wines (final product) of three Vitis vinifera L. red varieties grown in Argentina, and assessed their AC by a cellular model in order to recognise the phenolic compounds associated with the bioactive behaviour of samples by MRA analysis. This work not only describes changes in phenolic profile and in vivo AC from grape to wine, but also studies one of the possible mechanisms by which polyphenols would be exerting their effect.
Section snippets
Samples
Vitis vinifera L. red grapes, grape pomace (skins and seeds) and red young wine, corresponding to three varieties (Syrah, Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon), were obtained from the “Antonio de la Torre” cellar in the province of San Juan, Argentina. Three replicates of each sample type and variety were analysed. First, grapes were collected in their optimal ripening stage (22 to 25 g sucrose/100 mL). Pomaces were then collected after alcoholic fermentation and subsequent pressing, while young wines
Phenolic content of grape, pomace and wines
Table 1 shows the content of TP for each sample type of three V. vinifera L. red varieties. The TP ranged from 1062 to 1986 mg GAE g−1 DW for grapes in accordance with the results obtained by other authors (Lee, Rennaker, 2011, Meyer et al, 1997). This content showed significant differences among varieties. Cabernet Sauvignon and Syrah showed the highest and lowest content of TP among grape varieties, respectively. In the case of pomaces, all samples showed important content of TP, indicating
Conclusion
The results presented in this study underline differences in phenolic profile and in vivo antioxidant activity of products involved in the winemaking process: grape as a raw material, wine as a final product and pomace as a byproduct. In addition, we observed differences in both parameters according to the variety studied. Results from MRA analysis showed that Syrah had the highest AC, as a consequence of their phenolic profile characterised by the highest content in anthocyanin compounds,
Acknowledgements
We thank Agencia Nacional de Promoción Científica y Tecnológica (PICT 2008-0554) as well as Secretaría de Ciencia y Técnica-Universidad Nacional de Córdoba (05/C724) for financial support. We would like to express our gratitude to “Antonio de la Torre” cellar for providing samples.
References (36)
- et al.
Influence of winemaking techniques on the resveratrol content, total phenolic content and antioxidant potential of red wines
Food Chemistry
(2012) - et al.
How good antioxidant is the red wine? Comparison of some in vitro and in vivo methods to assess the antioxidant capacity of Argentinean red wines
LWT – Food Science and Technology
(2012) - et al.
Influence of pectolytic enzyme addition and prefermentative mash heating during the winemaking process on the phenolic composition of Okuzgozu red wine
Food Chemistry
(2013) A rapid and sensitive method for the quantification of microgram quantities of proteins utilizing the principle of protein-dye binding
Analytical Biochemistry
(1976)- et al.
Dual role of resveratrol in modulation of genotoxicity induced by sodium arsenite via oxidative stress and apoptosis
Food and Chemical Toxicology
(2013) - et al.
Evidence for glutathione peroxidase activities in cultured plant cells
Plant Science
(1985) - et al.
Oxidative stress induced in pathologies: The role of antioxidants
Biomedicine and Pharmacotherapy
(1999) - et al.
Phenolic compound profiles in selected Queensland red wines at all stages of wine-making process
Food Chemistry
(2011) - et al.
Modulation of the antioxidant/pro-oxidant balance, cytotoxicity and antiviral actions of grape seed extracts
Food Chemistry
(2013) - et al.
Anthocyanins in the ripe fruits of Rubus coreanus Miquel and their protective effect on neuronal PC-12 cells
Food Chemistry
(2013)
Influence of extraction methodology on grape composition values
Food Chemistry
Polyphenolic compounds and antioxidant properties of selected China wines
Food Chemistry
Regional characteristics of anthocyanin and flavonol compounds from grapes of four Vitis vinifera varieties in five wine regions of China
Food Research International
In vitro and in vivo antioxidant activity of musts and skin extracts from off-vine dried Vitis vinifera cv. “Tempranillo” grapes
Journal of Functional Foods
Evaluating the antioxidant capacity of natural products: A review on chemical and cellular-based assays
Analytica Chimica Acta
Neuroprotective properties of Spanish red wine and its isolated polyphenols on astrocytes
Food Chemistry
Sunlight exposure increases the phenolic content in postharvested white grapes. An evaluation of their antioxidant activity in Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Journal of Functional Foods
Phenolic compounds and antioxidant activities of skins and seeds of five wild grapes and two hybrids native to Japan
Journal of Food Composition and Analysis
Cited by (99)
Study on the dynamic changes of nutrient components and flavor compounds during the fermentation process of high-quality highland barley wine
2024, International Journal of Gastronomy and Food ScienceEffects of fermentation on flavor and antioxidant activity in ginkgo rice wine
2023, Food BioscienceNon-ionic surfactants-mediated green extraction of polyphenols from red grape pomace
2023, Journal of Applied Research on Medicinal and Aromatic PlantsCharacterisation of Korean rice wine (makgeolli) prepared by different processing methods
2023, Current Research in Food ScienceBiquinho pepper (Capsium chinense): Bioactive compounds, in vivo and in vitro antioxidant capacities and anti-cholesterol oxidation kinetics in fish balls during frozen storage
2022, Food BioscienceCitation Excerpt :However, such results may be questionable when considering their application in humans. Therefore, in vivo assays based on cell or organism models must be considered, since they mimic the cellular physiological conditions (Gao et al., 2019; Lingua et al., 2016). In this context, bioactive compounds from biquinho pepper were identified by UHPLC-MS analyses and the in vivo and in vitro antioxidant capacities were evaluated.