Antioxidant, antimicrobial and toxicological properties of Schinus molle L. essential oils
Graphical abstract
Introduction
Essential oils (EOs) and extracts of aromatic plants have been recognised for many years as a great source of pharmaceutical agents and food additives (Joy et al., 2007). Their antioxidant capacity for acting in metabolic response to the endogenous production of free radicals and other oxidant species has been demonstrated (Scalbert et al., 2005, Pintore et al., 2009, Wei and Shibamoto, 2010). Furthermore, EOs have shown important in vitro antimicrobial properties against pathogens and foodborne agents causing diseases (Hammer et al., 1999). Schinus molle L., commonly known as pink pepper or American pepper is a tree belonging to the Anacardiaceae family which is native to subtropical regions of South America. It was introduced and naturalised in Southern Europe, including Portugal, as an ornamental plant (Bailey and Bailey, 1976, Taylor, 2005). In traditional cuisine, Schinus molle fruits (berries) have been used as a replacement for black pepper and also to prepare alcoholic drinks and beverages (Marongiu et al., 2004). In folk medicine, Schinus molle has been used due to its antibacterial, antiviral, topical antiseptic, antifungal, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumoural, antispasmodic, analgesic properties, as well as a stimulant and an antidepressant (Duke, 1985, Alanís-Garza et al., 2007, Machado et al., 2007, Molina-Salinas et al., 2007, Guala et al., 2009). It has also been used in the treatment of toothache, rheumatism, menstrual disorders, and respiratory and urinary tract infection (Perez and Anesini, 1994, Barrachina et al., 1997, Bello et al., 1998, Marzouk et al., 2006, Atti dos Santos et al., 2010).
The results of some studies have revealed the antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of EOs and extracts of Schinus molle (Dikshit et al., 1986, Hayouni et al., 2008, Murray et al., 2009, Salazar-Aranda et al., 2011). Phytotoxic and insect repellent actions were reported in studies using ethanolic, petroleum ether and hexanic extracts of leaves and fruits of Schinus molle (Abdel-Sattar et al., 2010, Zahed et al., 2010). Acute and subacute toxicity experiments with ethanolic and hexanic extracts of Schinus molle leaves and fruits in mice, suggesting the safety of such experiments when administered per os (Ferrero et al., 2007, Bras et al., 2011). However, no previous studies on the pharmacological and toxicological effects of Schinus molle EOs were reported in the literature.
The aim of this study was to evaluate the chemical composition of Schinus molle leaf and fruit essential oils using GC-FID and GC–MS, antioxidant properties by free radical DPPH scavenging activity and β-carotene/linoleic acid methods, antimicrobial activities against pathogenic and commensal bacteria and food spoiling fungi, as well as cytotoxicity for Artemia salina and acute toxicity in mice.
Section snippets
Chemicals
Analytical standards for chromatography (>99%), 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH) (95%), analytical grade β-carotene, linoleic acid and ascorbic acid were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich. All other reagents and solvents were A.R. grade.
Preparation of plant essential oil
Leaves and fruits of Schinus molle were collected in autumn in the Évora region, in southeast Portugal. Voucher specimen was identified by Professor Marízia Menezes from Évora University, and deposited at the herbarium of the Department of Biology of the
Chemical composition of EOs
The extraction yield of Schinus molle EOs was 1.09±0.22% and 0.91±0.09% (v/dry weight) and density was 0.872 and 0.825, for leaf and fruit EOs, respectively. Results of gas chromatographic analysis of Schinus molle EOs are summarised in Table 1. Twenty-two components were identified in leaf EO, representing 69.3% of monoterpenes and 17.0% of sesquiterpenes. Otherwise, in fruit EO only 16 components were identified, representing 98.0% of monoterpenes and 0.5% of sesquiterpenes. Leaf EO was
Conclusion
Essential oils of leaves and fruits of Schinus molle showed significant antioxidant and antimicrobial properties against Gram+ and Gram− bacteria and food spoilage fungi. This suggests they have potential for use in biotechnology, food and/or pharmaceutical industries. Essential oils exhibited a low level of toxicity in mice, as clinical status (morbidity or mortality) and body weight were unaffected by EOs administration. Additional studies to evaluate hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity will be
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Prof. Jesus M. Rodilla, Departamento de Química, Unidade I&D Materiais Têxteis e do Papel, Universidade da Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal, for GC–MS analysis and Laboratório Flaviano Gusmão, Lda, Évora, Portugal, for providing bacterial tested strains.
This study was funded by FEDER as part of the Operational Programme for Competitiveness Factors—COMPETE and received National Funds from FCT—the Foundation for Science and Technology as part of the Strategic
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