Evaluating economic and ecological management to determine the economic size of pastoral units for different climatic zones in the northeast of Iran

Highlights

• This study aimed to investigate economic assessment of pastoral units in different climatic zones.

• Costs of traditional livestock management in winter rangeland are higher than those of summer rangeland.

• The current size of the assigned rangeland is lower than that of the economic justification.

• Rangeland-based livestock husbandry cannot create a good livelihood for herders in the region.

• The ecological status of planned rangelands in terms of ecological indicators is better than unplanned ones.

Abstract

Stocking rate and rangeland area are key variables to provide the livelihood of herders in different climatic zones. To evaluate the economic and ecological management of pastoral units, this study aims to determine the optimal economic size of pastoral units for livestock grazing use considering the ecological capacity of semi-arid rangelands in different climatic scenarios. Therefore, 12 pastoral units (an area of 47,355 ha) were selected in two climatic zones (summer and winter rangelands) in the Kalat region of Razavi Khorasan Province, Iran. By measuring forage production, carrying capacity was calculated. Based on the results, the costs of traditional livestock management in winter rangelands are higher than those of summer rangelands. Moreover, the current size of the assigned rangeland, especially the summer rangeland, is lower than that of the economic justification. The results emphasize that rangeland-based livestock husbandry cannot create a good livelihood for herders in the region, and it is necessary to pay special attention to other services and aspects, despite the existing ecological and socio-economic complexities. In this regard, providing multi-purpose rangeland use and useable technologies to better manage these areas is necessary to increase per capita household income and reduce the stocking rate in the region's rangelands. Ultimately, both increasing the level of available rangelands and reducing costs by applying new technology are required, as is the economic consideration of pastoral units by using rangelands for multiple purposes.

Introduction

Around 40% of the global surface area is protected by rangelands. Owing to intense and inappropriate grazing stresses, most rangelands in the world have declined (Mofidi Chelan et al., 2012; Radford et al., 2008; Stavi et al., 2008). Therefore, what should be considered by managers and planners of natural resources is sufficient knowledge of this ecosystem, and methods of exploiting this ecosystem are important. Unfortunately, in developing policies related to agriculture and natural resources, knowledge and analysis of all technical aspects are always neglected. We have made repeated fundamental changes to the proposals on natural resource conservation. Traditional livestock management in rangeland ecosystems is one of the most important pillars in the life of rural and nomadic communities in the world (Cocca et al., 2012;Farrié et al., 2015; Löf, 2013; Napogbong et al., 2020), and policymakers and planners in natural resources should pay special attention to this activity (Crook et al., 2020; Jakoby et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2020). For a number of reasons, the vast majority of households keep livestock for producing milk, poultry, fur, hair, and dung; as presents for religious purposes; for leverage; and as capital expenditure. While some households use livestock as a means of cash income for many households, livestock goods remain mainly within the household. Regarding the economic share of traditional rangeland-based livestock management in household income, very little is reported: traditional livestock husbandry dependent on rangelands provides 70% of the income of rural and nomadic families (Byrne et al., 2020; Khakipour et al., 2012).

Agricultural production is highly dependent on weather, climate, and water availability, and weather and climate-related disasters have a negative impact on this sector. Natural disasters can cause a slew of issues with crop production (Fenu and Malloci, 2020). Droughts are among the many multifaceted extreme events that have a negative impact on agriculture, rangeland ecosystems, water availability, and food security. Agricultural drought associates different characteristics of meteorological or hydrological drought to agricultural impacts (Abbas et al., 2020a). At present, one of the biggest environmental problems on a world scale that humans face is climate change caused by the high concentration of greenhouse gases (GHG) in the atmosphere from fossil fuels and industrial processes (Burciaga, 2020). Soil, water shortages (with a focus on precipitation shortages), differences between actual and potential evapotranspiration, and reduced groundwater or reservoir levels are all factors to consider. GHG emissions, particularly carbon dioxide (CO₂), are thought to be the primary cause of environmental degradation. In both the short and long run, there is a significant and positive relationship between CO₂ emissions and average temperature. In forest-covered areas, the related environmental variations have been diverse thus far. Recently, extraordinary human changes have had a profound impact on the earth's environment and ecosystems. Changes in land cover as a result of human activities have caused changes in the amount of carbon emitted to the mesosphere, contributing to global climate impacts (Abbas et al., 2016, 2018, 2020b). Environmental conditions such as climate change can have a critical effect on modern economies. There are two distinct streams of literature that have been identified. On the one hand, there are macro-level results that look into the relationship between climate change and aggregated output. Historical temperature fluctuations within countries are examined in this outlook to determine their effects on aggregate outcomes. Higher temperatures were found to have a significant negative impact on economic growth in poor countries but had no effect in developed countries.

However, other findings evidenced a significant effect in developed countries too (Aldieri and Vinci, 2020; Giannetti et al., 2020). There are over 200 estimates of CO₂ emissions' marginal damage costs. Climate change damage estimates are currently incomplete, with both positive and negative biases. From a welfare perspective, the impact of climate change is problematic because the population is endogenous, and because policy analyses should separate impatience, risk aversion, and inequity aversion between and within countries (Giannetti et al., 2020; Tol, 2008). Changes in air temperature and precipitation have a significant direct and indirect impact on the hydrologic cycle, as well as on water resources (Oo et al., 2020).

Pastoralism is one of the oldest viable and potentially sustainable livelihood systems if managed properly. Climate change has a negative impact on food security, particularly in pastoral systems in Africa's drylands and mountainous regions of Asia and South America, affecting crop and livestock production directly or indirectly (Uddin and Kebreab, 2020). In 2011, the contribution of ruminant livestock to national agricultural production was estimated by Behnke and Muthami (2011) to be 150% higher than the previously estimated value of Ksh (Kenyan Shilling) 319 billion (US$ 3.8 billion). In Tanzania, traditional and local pastoralists owned 95% of the country's livestock and a large share of the dairy and meat market. However, they have not calculated the value of these products in GDP (Odhiambo, 2006). Despite pastoralism's position in local, national, and global economies, it faces a number of challenges that prevent it from reaching its full potential. Such drawback includes misunderstandings of pastoralism, climate change, globalization, urbanization, and undervaluation of the pastoral economy. In the current situation, where the use of pasture fodder and livestock keeping in the rangeland is more common than other uses, exploitation, if it does not meet the livelihood and economic life of rangeland, endangers its existence for the imbalance between livestock and rangeland and finally the pressure of livestock grazing on rangeland. There are various programs for livestock and rangeland balance in the world.

A key strategy in conservation of rangelands of Iran and control of the ecosystem is to determine rangeland ownership, document pastoral units, and issue grazing licenses. As a result, experts from natural resources departments prepared rangeland management plans, and according to these plans, they will hand over the pastoral units to the local herders (Eftekhari et al., 2012; Hosseininia et al., 2013). Planning is needed to empower traditional herders and pastoralists for the sustainability of indigenous and local communities because strengthening this system causes positive social and political effects in developing societies. The prerequisite for the survival of pastoral units in the agricultural system, however, is to have a good view of the ecological, economic, and social circumstances under research (Mofidi Chelan et al., 2018). Despite implementing rangeland plans, several reports on the unfavorable condition of rangeland management are published. This indicates that the pressure on the rangeland is higher than its capacity. Its exploitation did not comply with the scale of its production and is not equal to the scientific criteria (Mohamadi et al., 2007). On the other hand, rangeland management plans seem to be the best and safest way to achieve rangeland management, but they have weaknesses in different climatic zones; usually, for livestock grazing, the amount of under control rangeland area and the recommended stocking rate for each hectare of rangelands are not enough to meet the livelihood needs of a herder. Therefore, herders bring more livestock into the rangeland.

The result is that the rangeland is destroyed because of ignoring the principle of livestock-rangeland balance. Therefore, the description of the services of rangeland management plans should be revised. During the rangeland's technical evaluation and issuing livestock grazing license, special attention was to the number of herders and the suitable rangeland area required by each herder. It is believed that determining the optimal stocking rate is the most important management decision in the production and economy of pastoral units. This decision is very complex and depends on different criteria (McGregor, 2007).

It seems that in today's conditions of rangelands, for sustainable use of this ecosystem, it is necessary to determine the optimal economic size of pastoral units by following the needs of basic social units, based on ecological, potential, climatic, and cultural conditions in each region (Arzani et al., 2005; Nyariki and Amwata, 2019; Zhao et al., 2019). In this regard, it should be noted that the optimal economic size of a pastoral unit is an appropriate size for each herder's household, such that in this size of rangeland, with an appropriate stocking rate, a suitable livelihood for the household can be achieved in addition to meeting the annual household costs (Mazheri et al., 2010; Motamedi et al., 2020). Recognizing the economic dimensions of these production units is necessary for short-term and long-term planning and is focused on the identification of revenue and expenditure of household and pastoral units (Ourmaz et al., 2013). Therefore, it is necessary for each climate, based on the three elements of human, livestock, and rangeland, to determine the optimal economic size of pastoral unit for utilization. Therefore, the question is which stocking rate and rangeland area are required by herders to provide their livelihood in each climate region (Arzani et al., 2004).

An explicit (rather than implicit) understanding of the economic assessment of pastoral units and the economic contribution of the pastoral production system to the local or national economy is crucial (Allegretti et al., 2016). The economic evaluation of pastoral units and their development potential show that pastoralism significantly contributes to the improvement of livelihoods, gross domestic product (GDP), and exports in many countries (Tolera and Eik, 2020; Mutiga, 2021). Pastoral units are more than just a way of raising livestock; they serve as a complex system that requires accurate and careful valuation. They are also consumption systems that support millions of pastoralists on the move around the world. Pastoralism is associated with a diverse set of values, some of which are tangible but many of which are not, some of which can be measured but many cannot, and those that can be measured are frequently overlooked (Gebisa, 2015). Rangelands cover 40% of the world's terrestrial area and 45 percent of Iran's total land area. Plant species preferred by ruminants have declined over time and have been replaced by less desirable, sometimes toxic species in many areas of Iran as a result of poor economic and ecological management (e.g., Peganum harmala L, Avena sativa L, Cenchrus ciliaris L, Sorghum spp, etc.) (Mofidi Chelan et al., 2012). Evaluating the economic and ecological management of pastoral units and identifying rangeland degradation indicators and the exploiters' perception of them are parameters that could be critical in the management of the country's rangeland resources. Nevertheless, there is little information on the indigenous knowledge about rangeland degradation and economic assessment of pastoral units across pastoral communities in different regions of Iran such as Khorasan Province (Behmanesh et al., 2016). Traditional rangeland-based livestock management in Khorasan Razavi has no financial justification. Furthermore, the continuation of activities, in addition to causing serious damage to rangelands as valuable natural resources, is not economically reasonable and justifiable for farmers (Haghiyan and Nejatiyanpour, 2020). Based on previous studies, it is necessary to determine the optimal economic size of pastoral units according to ecological, social, and economic conditions in different regions.

Currently, in the rural production system of Iran, which is generated by the interaction of three factors (humans, livestock, and rangeland), the ecological potential of the rangelands is being considered as a limiting factor. Overall, the basic social unit can create the basis of principled utilization and can be used for sustainable development programs, economic investment, and creating a dynamic system to make a balance between livestock grazing and rangeland capacity. It has been reported that the application of rangeland management principles is only possible if the natural and ecological values of rangelands are considered in relation to social conditions in economic pastoral units to meet human needs and investment costs in rangelands (Mazheri et al., 2010; Miladfar et al., 2010). Indeed, establishing a reasonable relationship between herders and rangelands requires renewable resources and sufficient income for herders to live and take part in implementing rangeland management projects. Accordingly, this study designed a stepwise flow chart to test the suggested hypotheses (Fig. 1) (see Fig. 2).

Thus, this study is novel based on two main aspects: i) thematically, it evaluates the economic and ecological management of pastoral units, which is not explored in previous studies in Kalat region, Razavi Khorasan Province, Iran, and ii) methodologically, it determines the optimal economic size of pastoral units for livestock grazing use considering the ecological capacity of the study area, which has not been studied before. The results can make this study unique from other studies and can be used for similar areas in the country or around the world. The findings of this study provide empirical evidence on the economic benefits of rangeland management practices. Overall, to promote sustainable rangeland management, there is a need to enhance such practices.

This study aimed to evaluate the economic and ecological management of pastoral units. By doing so, this study determined the optimal economic size of pastoral units for livestock grazing use considering the ecological capacity of semi-arid rangelands in different climatic scenarios. Moreover, there are two specific objectives as follows: 1) surveying the needs and livelihoods of herder families that can be provided by traditional rangeland-based livestock management in the pastoral units and 2) evaluating the economic justification for pastoral units in rangeland-based livestock management. To achieve these objectives, we tested the following hypothesis: (i) the pastoral units in traditional rangeland-based livestock management do not meet the economic needs and livelihood of herder families, and (ii) the lack of economic justification for pastoral units in rangeland-based livestock management causes an imbalance between livestock and rangeland and increases the grazing pressure on rangeland. The remainder of this paper is organized into five sections: section 2 focuses on the main methods used and descriptive results in different issues, section 3 focuses on the obtained main results, section 4 provides the discussion on the main findings, and section 5 highlights the main conclusions with elaboration on the main findings and policy implications.