Research articleProtected area coverage of threatened vertebrates and ecoregions in Peru: Comparison of communal, private and state reserves
Introduction
The current global extinction crisis is predicted to increase in severity in the coming decades (Ceballos et al., 2015, Lewis, 2006, Purvis et al., 2000, Scheffers et al., 2016). Caused largely by anthropogenic activities (Asner et al., 2009, Estrada et al., 2017, Godfrey and Irwin, 2007, Moran and Kanemoto, 2017), current trends suggest that the world's tropical regions, home to the majority of terrestrial biodiversity (Dirzo and Raven, 2003, Myers et al., 2000), will be severely affected. A large loss of tropical vertebrate species diversity could have severe consequences for general ecosystem health (Hooper et al., 2005, Petchey, 2000). Other immediate consequences will be those effecting local human populations, including the loss of traditional natural resources, culturally important species and development opportunities from tourism and other forms of exploitation (Chapin Iii et al., 2000, Gascon et al., 2015).
Peru is considered one of the world's ‘megadiverse’ countries (McNeely et al., 1990, Noss, 1990). Its high level of species diversity is a result of the diversity of its ecosystems which are distributed between 19 terrestrial ecoregions (Fig. 1) (Olson and Dinerstein, 1998, Olson et al., 2001). The vast majority of Peru's vertebrate species are found in the Amazonian lowlands and Andean montane and pre-montane cloud forests (Pacheco et al., 2009). The remaining species are found distributed between its coastal deserts, dry forests, Andean Puna, and other habitats (ONERN, 1976, Rodríguez and Young, 2000).
Protected areas (PAs) have been a conservation mainstay for decades and are arguably the most effective conservation strategy for species protection (Gray et al., 2016, Hoffmann et al., 2010, Tognelli et al., 2008, Waldron et al., 2013). The locations of PAs are often chosen to protect representative ecosystems (Watson et al., 2010) or are based on socio-political criteria. This has often led to inadequate and unrepresentative coverage of species diversity, and does not prioritize Threatened species (Khan et al., 1997, Tognelli et al., 2008, Watson et al., 2010). Estimates suggest that globally only 15% of Threatened vertebrate species are ‘adequately’ covered by PAs (Venter et al., 2014). Previous studies in Peru have also reported inadequate coverage for a majority of species evaluated (Fajardo et al., 2014, Swenson et al., 2012, Young et al., 2009).
Conservation initiatives involving PAs in Peru have increased dramatically over the past few decades (Jenkins and Joppa, 2009, SERNANP, 2017). Protected area legislation in Peru began by following the traditional ‘fines and fences’ approach (Adams, 2004, Brockington, 2002, Hutton et al., 2005) but now also includes more inclusive conservation models, such as community conservation initiatives; those run by local stakeholders (Horwich and Lyon, 2007, Horwich et al., 2015, Kitamura and Clapp, 2013, Shanee et al., 2014), which include private/communal PAs (Hajek et al., 2011, Monteferri and Coll, 2009, Shanee et al., 2014, Stolton et al., 2014). Government PAs are divided between those that are run by the state (National Parks, National Sanctuaries, etc) and those run by regional governments (Regional Conservation Areas) (Monteferri and Coll, 2009). In Peru non-government PAs can be awarded to those with land titles, such as owners of family plots or on communally held lands, as a Private Conservation Areas (ACP) through application to the Ministry of the Environment (Law No. 26834 of 1997) or through conservation agreements based on the civil code. On un-titled lands with forest cover, individuals and organizations can request non-timber forestry concessions. The two most common are Conservation Concessions (CC) and Ecotourism Concessions (CE) (Law No. 29763 of 2015). There is no limit to the size of a CC, although CEs are limited to areas of ≤10,000 ha and are subject to an annual fee.
The first state PA, the 8214 ha Parque Nacional de Cutervo, was created in 1961. In contrast the first private PA, the 34,412 ha ACP Chaparri, wasn't created until 2001 as legal frameworks for ACPs were not previously available. The first Conservation Concession, the 135,955 ha Los Amigos CC, was also granted in 2001. The first Ecotourism Concessions weren't created until 2004, when four were formalized in the same year.
We use publicly available data to evaluate coverage of the distributions of terrestrial mammal, bird, reptile and amphibian species listed in one of the IUCN Red List Threatened categories or as Data Deficient (IUCN, 2016), and ecoregions (Olson and Dinerstein, 1998, Olson et al., 2001) provided by state and private/communal PAs in Peru. We pay particular attention to species and ecoregions that are found in only one type of PA.
Section snippets
Methods
Peru lies between 0°05′5″ and 18°25′3″ degrees south and 69°52′14″ and 81°26′25″ degrees west, covering ∼1,285,216 km2, with elevations ranging from sea level up to 6768 m above sea level (m.a.s.l.) (ONERN, 1976, Rodríguez and Young, 2000). Major terrestrial ecosystems found in Peru include mangrove, desert, dry forests, high mountain Sierras, Puna, montane and pre-montane cloud forests, terra firme and varzea Amazonian rainforests (ONERN, 1976, Rodríguez and Young, 2000). Thirty of 32 world
Results
Our analysis shows that the national PA system of Peru, including all categories of PA covers 217,879 km2 of terrestrial habitats (17% of Peru's total land surface) (Fig. 2). Within this, 28,800 km2 (13.2%) are in Regional Conservation Areas and 21,682 km2 (10.0%) in Communal Reserves. Private/communal PAs cover 16,588 km2 (1.29% of Peru's total land surface and 7.6% of the PA network), of which 3495 km2 (21.1%) are in Private Conservation Areas, 12,009 km2 (72.4%) in Conservation Concessions
Discussion
The Convention on Biological Diversity Aichi Target 11 is to have 17% coverage of terrestrial land area in PAs by 2020 (CBD, 2014, Venter et al., 2014), increasing from the 10% target set in 2003 (Brooks et al., 2004), with an additional target (12) of preventing the extinction of Threatened species (Venter et al., 2014). Based on our results, Peru has already passed the Aichi target (11) of 17% of its territory in PAs, three years ahead of schedule. However our results show that Peru's PA
Acknowledgements
We dedicate this manuscript to the memory of our co-author Dr Robert Horwich (1940–2017) for his contributions in developing community conservation work in Peru and across the globe. We wish to thank the two anonymous reviewers and the editor for their comments on a previous version that have greatly improved this manuscript. We are grateful to Brooke Aldrich, Luis Zari and Ashley Atkins for their help with this study. We would also like to acknowledge the contribution made by all
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