The current state of gender-specific delinquency programming
Introduction
In the past fifteen years, the field of criminology has taken a closer look at delinquent girls and their experiences prior to, during, and after their involvement in the juvenile justice system. The focal point of the practical research has been the design, implementation, and evaluation of gender-specific programs (“GSPs”) for “at-risk” and delinquent girls.
GSPs developed during a time characterized by a call for more detailed information on how delinquency prevention and treatment programs work. The 1992 reauthorization of the 1974 Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act specifically requested research to determine the needs of delinquent girls and to develop strategies to address these needs. In this reauthorization, gender-specific services were defined as those “designed to address the needs unique to the gender of the individual to whom such services are provided” (Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Appropriations Authorization, 1992).
Although the term “gender-specific” could (and should) be interpreted to be relevant for boys as well as girls, it has become a reference solely to reflect programming for delinquent girls (Goodkind, 2005). This is largely explained by the recognition that women and girls have historically been ignored in studies of crime and the detention and institutionalization of female offenders (e.g., Acoca, 1999, Arnold, 1990, Belknap, 2007, Chesney-Lind and Rodriguez, 1983, Chesney-Lind and Shelden, 1998) and the professional testimony given to the legislature advocating for the need to address the unique programmatic needs of delinquent girls (Belknap, Winter, & Cady, 2003). To this end, a report from the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention stated that “gender-specific programming for girls is a comprehensive approach to female delinquency rooted in the experience of girls” (Greene, Peters, & Associates, 1998, p. v). Scholars responded to the challenge for research-driven information regarding what “works” for preventing and treating girls' delinquency, advancing both theoretical and applied empirical research to provide a foundation for a better understanding of the risk-factors for girls' delinquency and the types and evaluations of GSPs for such girls. This article will provide a brief summary of the research assessing the tenuous role of theory in delinquent girls' programming, before reviewing the current study, which attempted to identify existing programs and examine their design and evidence of effect.
Section snippets
The tenuous nature of theory in delinquency programming
Many early delinquency programs were not founded upon any theoretical or empirical research (Catalano, Berglund, Ryan, Lonczak, & Hawkins, 1998). Situating a prevention or treatment program within a theoretical framework is important because criminological theories typically vary in their therapy or policy implications. Similarly, each criminal justice program or practice is based upon some explanation of criminal behavior, or human behavior more generally, regardless of whether it is
Literature review
Recent scholarship has appreciably advanced knowledge on female-specific pathways towards delinquency and the risk and protective factors that operate specifically in girls' lives. It is important to note that many of the same factors impact boys, to varying degrees (Belknap and Holsinger, 2006, Dembo et al., 1992, Dodge et al., 1990). “Good” programs for girls should address such target factors as physical and sexual abuse, child neglect, cognitive deficits, lack of traditional social
Methods
A broad literature search was conducted, utilizing search engines from university libraries and government and government-funded agency Web sites. The latter consisted of “information houses” which review and evaluate prevention and treatment programs for youth in their pursuit to identify “what works” in preventing aggression, mental health issues, and delinquency. The groups relevant to this study included the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency's Title V program, the Center for
Findings
Much of the literature found through this search did not meet the criteria to be reviewed in depth. The search led to many existing literature reviews, most of which reported on a very small number of programs (Blake et al., 2001, Ravoira, 1999). Others reviewed many programs but were either published many years ago or provide little in the way of proven program effects (Greene et al., 1998, Schaffner, 2006). Identified programs such as Go for Greatness (Guthrie & Flinchbaugh, 2001), Girl Talk (
Discussion
The literature tracing the development of GSPs identified numerous risk and protective factors specific to girls, areas of need specific to girls in the juvenile justice system, and theories important to program curriculum.
The results of this study indicated that many of the twelve reviewed programs targeted the same risk and protective factors that research revealed to be salient in the lives of girls; six programs targeted substance use, while five programs each targeted interpersonal skills,
Conclusions
The analysis in the current study indicated that the GSPs that have documented evidence of effectiveness might not appropriately target and provide services to adolescent females involved in the juvenile justice system. Indeed, the field appears to be more appropriately developed as it operates outside the justice system. There is a clear focus on relationship-building in evaluated programs and several others target and serve minority adolescent girls exclusively. They also target known risk
Acknowledgements
This article was presented at the 2006 annual meeting of the American Society of Criminology in Los Angeles, California. The author would like to give a special thanks to Joanne Belknap of the Sociology Department at the University of Colorado and Barbara Bloom of the Sociology Department at Sonoma State University for valuable comments on this article. Any shortcomings, however, are the author's.
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