Examining the relationship between community participation and water handling hygiene practices in the informal neighborhoods of Kisumu, Kenya
Introduction
Community participation theory (CP) has gained widespread acceptance as a viable strategy for improving water service delivery in rural villages in the developing world. The theory is based on the premise that involving stakeholders in the decision-making process contributes to broader social, economic and political benefits (Njoh, 2002, Njoh, 2003a, Njoh, 2003b, Njoh, 2006, Ananga, 2015, Ananga et al., 2016, Paul, 1987, Swapan, 2014). Many previous studies are unified in ascertaining a positive link between CP and improved water delivery systems (see, e.g. Cleaver, 1996, Prokopy, 2004, Prokopy, 2005, Prokopy, 2009). Despite this evidence, hardly any effort has been made to specifically examine the contribution of CP to water handling hygiene practices. This is especially true in the case of urban informal settlements. Consequently, there is a gulf in knowledge of the implications of the potential of CP as a viable strategy for improving water handling hygiene. The study reported in this paper seeks to bridge this gulf. In particular, the study examines the relationship between community participation and water handling hygiene practices in four informal neighborhoods of Kisumu, Kenya. The common thread running through these neighborhoods is the fact that they contain potable water supply schemes that were supported by Sustainable Aid in Africa International (SANA). SANA is a non-governmental organization (NGO) operating in Kisumu. Its mission is to improve access to clean potable water and better sanitation for Kisumu whose population of 390,164 (KNBS, 2009) makes it Kenya's third largest city after Nairobi and Mombasa. SANA achieves its goals by promoting participatory techniques and creating sustainable technologies (SANA, 2014).
Although sanitation, the main subject of this paper is largely ignored in academic discourse, it commands inordinate importance in development practice. Arguably, the most important reason for this is the fact that unsafe water and poor sanitation constitute a major cause of diseases. According to a report by UN-Habitat (2012), over half of the world's hospital beds are occupied by people suffering from illnesses associated with contaminated water. The study further reveals that more human deaths result from polluted water than from all forms of violence including wars. Some 5 to 10 million people, including 1.6 million children under 5, die annually from ailments associated with unhygienic water and related problems (Norton, 2014). The study reported in this paper derives its importance mainly from its substantive focus on CP as a potentially viable strategy for improving the hygienic quality of water.
The paper is organized as follows. The next section reviews community participation (CP) as practiced in development planning. Following this is a vivid sketch of the profile of each of the water schemes studied. This is followed by a presentation of the data, methodology and main techniques employed in the study. Two subsequent sections respectively present and discuss the study's main findings. The paper ends with some concluding remarks and a set of policy recommendations.
Section snippets
Community participation and development planning
Community participation (CP), especially as articulated via self-help initiatives, is contrary to popular belief, part of the history of human evolution. The classic works of Charles Abrams (e.g., 1964) and Herbert Gans (e.g. 1962) demonstrate the versatility and universality of CP. Abrams draws on his experience with the United Nations to show how people use informal means and structures to fulfill housing needs in places as far apart as India and Ghana, Turkey and Puerto Rico and the
Kenya water supply, access and management
Kenya is currently classified as a water-scarce country with less than 1,000 m3 per capita of renewable freshwater supplies (Momanyi and Le, 2005). Almost 80 percent of Kenya is made up of arid and semi-arid lands. The Kenyan Ministry of Water and Irrigation Plan 2012 estimated that 43 percent of the country's rural population lack access to safe drinking water sources. In urban centers safe drinking water is also scarce. A study by Transparency and Integrity Service Delivery in Africa (2011)
The study site
The City of Kisumu, the study site, is located along the shores of Lake Victoria in western Kenya. It is Kenya's third largest city after Nairobi and Mombasa. A unique feature of the city is its informal neighborhoods residents, 60 percent of whom lack access to clean potable water (UN-Habitat, 2005). The four water schemes used as empirical referents here are located in neighborhoods of such kind. The schemes are: 1) Wandiege Water and Sanitation Scheme, 2) Obunga Water and Sanitation Scheme,
Wandiege water and sanitation scheme
Initiated in 2001, the Wandiege Water and Sanitation Scheme (WWSS) is a community-operated water scheme operating in the western side of the city. It was established as a community self-help group with financial support from SANA and the local community. The mission of the schemes is to meet the potable water needs members of Wandiege community. The community donated land and identified areas where the water kiosks were to be constructed. They also provided labor and money for the piping
Obunga water and sanitation scheme
Established in 2003, the Obunga Water and Sanitation Scheme (OWSS) is also a community operated scheme. It was initiated under the Kenyan Government Water Reform Act of 2002. The Act accorded autonomous companies the responsibility of providing water and sanitation services in urban areas. However, it gave them a list of principles to abide by. The principles included the imperative of considering water both as a social and an economic good. In this spirit, the Kisumu Water and Sewerage Company
Asengo water and sanitation scheme
Asengo Water and Sanitation Scheme (AWSS) is located in the north of the city. It was established in 2005 as a joint venture between SANA and the Asengo community. Specifically, SANA provided the initial financial support for upgrading the spring water which the community previously relied on. They also provided the necessary technical support. The community provided labor, land and identified construction points for the intake tanks. This project is unique because the initial financial
Paga water and sanitation scheme
Located on the western side of Kisumu, the Paga Water and Sanitation Scheme (PWSS) was established in 1989. The original funding for the scheme was sourced from the Kenyan Government under the Kisumu City Slums and Peri-Urban Poverty Alleviation Program. Initially, the funds were used to build a 10,000 L tank, a 3 km pipe line and to purchase a diesel pump intended for pumping water from Lake Victoria to the feeder tank. The scheme served the community for two years until the diesel pump was
Methods
This study is part of larger research endeavor that employed data elicited via a structured survey instrument. The study sought to answer the following question: “what are the contributions of CP in the production of clean potable water in Kisumu's informal neighborhoods?” The instrument contained 58 items. The specific items analyzed for the purpose of the present study were designed to tap information on households' water handling hygiene practices. Other relevant items analyzed here are
Variables and hypothesized relationships
Previous studies have used different indicators to operationalize participation as an independent variable. A study by Manikutty (1997) used beneficiary voice in choice of the water system and willingness to contribute resources as an indicator of participation. Sara and Katz (1998) used beneficiaries' willingness to pay for the water service as a measure of participation. On their part, Isham and Kahkonen (2001) operationalized participation in terms of cash and labor contributions. Prokopy
Main findings
The main findings of the study are summarized on Table 1, Table 2, Table 3, Table 4, Table 5, all of which are 2 × 2 contingency tables. Table 1 contains the results for reports on odor in water by the main water supplier. A cursory examination of the table shows a clear link between the main supplier and reports of odor in the water. Note that of the 206 (out of 317) respondents who stated that their water was odorless, 85 percent (or 176) were beneficiaries of CP water systems.
In comparison,
Discussion of findings
The main findings of this study suggest a strong relationship between community participation (CP) and improved water handling hygiene practices. It is easy to explain these findings in the very specific instance of the study's empirical referent, Kisumu. Here, as we stated earlier, the CP potable water supply projects received financial, technical and other support from the international NGO, Sustainable Aid in Africa International (SANA). Although interrogating the standard operating
Policy implications and conclusion
This study promises to significantly contribute to the scant literature on community participation in water service delivery in urban informal settlements/neighborhoods. Methodologically, the study deviates from the norm as it is one of the few that deploys quantitative techniques to examine the relationship between community participation and development project outcomes in Africa. The study's focus on a Kisumu informal settlement is also noteworthy given that such locations rarely attract the
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