Inundative pest control: How risky is it? A case study using entomopathogenic nematodes in a forest ecosystem
Section snippets
Inundative control with EPN and the potential associated risks
Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPN) are lethal insect pathogens that are commercially produced as inundative control agents and used in various regions of the world against a variety of pests (Kaya and Gaugler, 1993, Shapiro-Ilan et al., 2006, Grewal, 2012). There are two genera (Steinernema Travassos, 1927 and Heterorhabditis Poinar, 1976: Nematoda: Rhabditidae), both of which have global natural distributions (except Antarctica) and are used in biological control (Kaya and Gaugler, 1993, Stuart
Large pine weevil control: Target pest, environment and control agents
The large pine weevil is a major forestry pest in 15 European countries, including Ireland and the UK (Långström & Day, 2004). This insect threatens an estimated 3.4 million hectares of forests and would cause up to €140 million in annual damages if not controlled (Långström & Day, 2004). Larvae feed and develop under the bark of stumps and roots of recently dead conifers for one or more years (Leather et al., 1999). Emerging adults feed on the bark of seedlings that are planted to restock such
Natural distribution of entomopathogenic nematode species used for pine weevil control
Organisms exotic to a particular environment may pose risks that differ in quality and scale from those posed by indigenous organisms (Simberloff and Stiling, 1996, van Lenteren et al., 2003, Clercq et al., 2011, van Lenteren, 2012). Ehlers and Hokkanen (1996) recommended that, unlike the release of indigenous EPN, the release of exotic EPN species (but not exotic strains of indigenous species) should be regulated due to greater potential risk. Thus, a discussion of the risks posed by EPN must
Risk categories for inundative control agents
Several methods to standardise risk assessment procedures for inundative control agents have been proposed (van Lenteren et al., 2003, Babendreier et al., 2005, Mills et al., 2006). To meet the criteria for risk assessment of introduced biological control agents recommended by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD, 2003), van Lenteren et al. (2003) proposed a method of calculating a numerical index based on five risk categories. This method allows for a categorical
Establishment
In inundative biological control, long-term persistence and establishment of the applied control agent in the target environment is not a desired outcome (Bathon, 1996, van Lenteren et al., 2003). Control agents are applied in large numbers to cause an immediate, but usually transient, reduction in the pest population. EPN have the potential to persist in the soil after application since the applied IJs are the non-feeding, stress-tolerant ‘dauer’ stage; in addition, they may recycle and
Conclusions and risk evaluation
Both exotic and indigenous EPN trialled against the large pine weevil persisted in the soil for up to four years after application (Dillon et al., 2008a, Harvey and Griffin, 2016), but the evidence suggests that persistence was driven by recycling through the target pest as intended. Consequently, EPN levels decreased to background levels (for an indigenous strain) or undetectable levels (for exotic species/strains) along with the natural decrease in pest population (Torr et al., 2007, Dillon
Acknowledgments
CDH was funded by the EPA STRIVE programme (project 2007-PhD-B-6) and CDW was funded by INTERREG IVA (IMPACT Project), co-funded by the Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine (DAFM). Field trials were conducted under licence from the Pesticide Control Service of DAFM.
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