Effect of enzymatic-ultrasonic hydrolyzed chitooligosaccharide on rheology of gelatin incorporated yogurt and 3D printing
Graphical abstract
Introduction
Application of three-dimensional (3D) printing technology has emerged as an alternative food manufacture technology and has been gaining interest in food sectors. It offers a wide range of advantages such as customizing special food, personalizing nutritional food, simplifying food supply, and producing accurate-control food for various customer groups. Food 3D printing has changed the concept of traditional food preparation according to a pre-designed model, which is gradually well received by customers. 3D printing could be used to create complex and sophisticated structures made of food inks based on polysaccharide, proteins, fruits, vegetables, meat, confectionary, etc. Also, 3D printing of yogurt that is soft printable food material with high printing possibility (Riantiningtyas et al., 2021), is interesting and needs deep exploration for practical, innovative food application.
Yogurt is a kind of functional dairy product and has excellent health benefits, unique flavour and high nutritional quality because of its protein, lipid, vitamin and mineral contents. Therefore, yogurt becomes one of the most popular foods in the world (Li, Liu, et al., 2021; Nielsen, Jakobsen, Geiker, & Bertram, 2021). It is often prepared with milk and beneficial bacteria (Streptococcus thermophilus, Lactobacillus bulgaricus, bifidobacterium, etc.) through sterilization, cooling and fermentation processes (Ribeiro et al., 2021). These probiotics could improve intestinal function, reduce intestinal disease, promote nutrient absorption, alleviate lactose intolerance, lower cholesterol and regulate the immune system (Ravindran, Kiran, & Selvin, 2022). Yogurt is a weak gel-like, viscoelastic mixture and consists of a heterogeneous network structure, with distinctive texture, mouth feeling, and flavor that makes yogurt an appealing product taking a great portion in the dairy industry (Fu et al., 2018).
Yogurt industry develops rapidly, but there are also some problems, such as limited storage life, insufficient stability, unsatisfying viscosity and even poor odor acceptability and preference (Liu, Yang, Wang, & Song, 2022). Stirred yogurt is the one of most popular fermented milk products worldwide (Körzendörfer, Temme, Lodermeyer, Schlücker, & Hinrichs, 2021). Rheology and texture of stirred yogurt are crucial for consumer acceptance and are affected by the raw materials as well as multiple processing conditions. Stabilizers are often added during yogurt production to bind free water as hydration and to stabilize protein molecules in the network by covalent or electrostatic interactions (Pang, Deeth, Prakash, & Bansal, 2016). The relevant stabilizing materials with gel-like structure, including gelatin, whey protein isolate, salecan, etc., are being tested for yogurt development in light of their attractive properties (Fu et al., 2018; Riantiningtyas et al., 2021). Chitooligosaccharide (COS) could work as prebiotics, a non-digestible food ingredient that beneficially, selectively stimulates the growth or activity of a limited number of bacterial species (e.g., Lactobacillus kefir and Lactobacillus paracase) and promotes the proliferation of microbiota in the intestine. It is proposed to enhance the chemical characters of yogurt for benefiting human health and well-being (Lee, Park, Jung, & Shin, 2002).
Chitosan (CS) is often obtained from the shells of crustaceans such as crabs and shrimps) and is a β-(1,4)-linked polycationic polysaccharide composed of d-glucosamine and N-acetyl-d-glucosamine (Wang, Ding, Ma, & Zhang, 2021b, 2021a; Wang et al., 2022). It is an excellent material utilizable in the biomedical, pharmacological, agricultural and biotechnological applications. But it is insoluble in neutral or alkaline water (pH's above 6.3) with the limited application. COS is a small-molecular-weight material obtained by chemical, physical, enzymatic or radiation degradation of chitosan or chitin (Naveed et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2021). Due to its short-length molecules and low molecular weight, COS can be easily dissolved in aqueous solutions with varied pH values. It captures the attention of numerous researchers and has widely acceptable applications in food production (Naveed et al., 2019). The d-glucosamine units endow COS with a positive charge, making COS an attractive bioactive substance (Dong et al., 2021). As a safe, functional and effective food additive, it could be used as (1) natural antioxidant or antibacterial agents replacing chemical preservatives (Bi et al., 2021; Liu, Xia, Jiang, Yu, & Yue, 2018); (2) functional agents with characteristics such as slimming, detoxification, beautifying, immune regulation, allergenicity reduction and so on (Fu, Wang, Wang, Ni, & Wang, 2019; Ha, Lee, & Lee, 2018; Kim et al., 2014). Moreover, it could be applied in dairy products. As an activation factor of intestinal probiotics, it can improve the absorption of calcium and minerals. COS has prebiotic effect on the Bifidobacterium bifidium and Lactobacillus sp. (Lee et al., 2002). During research, it is found that microencapsulating or complexing of COS in the form of nanoparticles or microparticles is important for the potential application in yoghurt (Choi, Ahn, Kim, & Kwak, 2006; Ha et al., 2018; Ismail, El-Sayed, & Fayed, 2020).
However, there is no report about COS addition order and its fermentation content on rheology, quality and 3D printability of stirred yogurt. This work adopted enzymatic-ultrasonic hydrolysis to obtain COS and the developed COS was then loaded into gelatin, as gelatin (1) could have high loading capacity to protect active materials (e.g., eugenol, tannic acid and resveratrol) with various applications (Li, Liu, et al., 2021; Xu, Wu, & Wang, 2021; Zhang, Cai, Ding, & Wang, 2021), and (2) could usually act as fat replacers in stirred yoghurt, because they have the ability to stabilize the yoghurt systems, and improve their oral perception, giving yoghurt a delicate and smooth taste akin to commercial yoghurt (Huang et al., 2021). After fermenting and functionalizing yogurt, effect of COS addition sequence and content on microstructure and rheology performance of yogurt was explored, which was followed by characterizing quality and shelf life of yogurt products. Finally, 3D printing of yogurt by the designed structure was carried out for enhancing special customization application, and more types of yogurt products functionalized by COS were developed for potentially commercial dairy application.
Section snippets
Materials and reagents
Chitosan was supplied by FEIYUBIO Co., Ltd. (Jiangsu, China). Chitosanase and pectinase were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich and Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd. Lactobacillus acidophilus, Bifidobacteriumlactis, Streptococcus thermophilus, whole milk (fat content ∼4.0%, a protein content of 5%), skim milk (fat content <0.1%, a protein content of 5%), commercial yogurt, purple rice, millet and apples were purchased from commercial supermarket (Chongqing, China).
Preparation of COS
CS was dissolved in hydrochloric
Characterization of CS, COS-nsnc and COS
Fig. 1a illustrates the process producing COS-nsnc and COS via enzymatic hydrolysis and enzymatic-ultrasonic hydrolysis of CS, respectively, during which β-1, 4-glycosidic bond of CS was specifically and selectively cut. Molecular weight of COS-nsnc and COS were determined as 3500–4800 Da, and 300–1600 Da, respectively, demonstrating that enzymatic-ultrasonic treatment could better improve the hydrolysis of CS molecules than enzymatic hydrolysis. It is due to that sonication system can be a
Conclusion
COS prepared by the enzymatic hydrolysis of CS could be effectively introduced into stirred yogurt for functionalizing the dairy products and could improve the practical application. The obtained COS has spherical appearance and possesses many NH and OH groups, which accounts for the high solubility and antioxidant activity. After COS incorporating into yogurt, Plan 1 would benefit the yogurt dispersion and structure, and help obtain smaller particle sizes than Plan 2, enhancing more delicate
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Ludan Hu: Writing – review & editing, Validation, Investigation. Fuyuan Ding: Validation, Investigation. Weiwei Liu: Validation, Investigation. Yang Cheng: Validation, Investigation. Juncheng Zhu: Validation, Investigation. Liang Ma: Validation, Investigation. Yuhao Zhang: Supervision, Funding acquisition, Project administration. Hongxia Wang: Methodology, Writing – review & editing, Funding acquisition, Project administration.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest to this work.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the support from Natural Science Foundation of Chongqing (cstc2020jcyj-msxmX0995), Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities of China (SWU119069), National Key R&D Program of China (2021YFD21001005), National Natural Science Foundation of China (31972102), Special key project of Chongqing technology innovation and application development (cstc2021jscx-cylhX0014), the Ecological Fishery Technological System of Chongqing Municipal Agricultural and Rural
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2023, Food HydrocolloidsCitation Excerpt :And for T2(2), this is due to the constant protein content of all yogurts. The result of oscillation amplitude sweeps, i.e., storage modulus G′ and loss modulus G″ versus shear stress (τ) was presented in Fig. 6A. Apparently, G′ for all yogurts was insensitive to the low applied stress (0.1–1 Pa), at this point the internal structure of the yogurt was sufficient to resist the forces (Hu et al., 2022). As the applied stress continued to raise (1–100 Pa), G′ successively showed a decrease with increasing stress, during which G′ intersected G′′ (marked by green circles) and then G″ was always greater than G′.