Review articleHas the question of e-waste opened a Pandora's box? An overview of unpredictable issues and challenges
Introduction
Among other terms, electrical and electronic waste (e-waste), or waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE), are terms used to cover electrical and electronic equipment discarded as waste without intent of reuse (Step, 2014). E-waste offers particularly high potential for recovery as it contains valuable recyclable components such as gold, platinum and silver. However, e-waste also contains non-negligible amounts of potentially toxic substances (e.g., cadmium and lead) and is thus considered hazardous when improperly managed. These findings highlight the need for the safe and smart management (including proper recycling) and commercial exploitation of e-waste while preserving human health and environmental integrity, given the large volume of e-waste generated worldwide annually (41.8 million metric tonnes (MMT) estimated in 2014) and its fast growth (Lundgren, 2012, Kiddee et al., 2013, Cucchiella et al., 2016, Step, 2016, Baldé et al., 2015). Canada, which generated an estimated 725,000 tonnes of e-waste in 2014, is well below the 2014 top five e-waste global generators, which were the United States (7.1 MMT), China (6.0 MMT), Japan (2.2 MMT), Germany (1.8 MMT) and India (I.7 MMT). However, with 20.4 kg of e-waste generated annually per inhabitant, Canada remains one of the highest contributors to e-waste volume in relative quantities in the Americas, right between the United States (22.1 kg/in.) and the Bahamas (19.1 kg/in.) (Baldé et al., 2015).
This review aims to expose the complexity of e-waste problems. Its objectives are (a) to provide a brief overview of the historical aspects of e-waste management; (b) to identify gaps, issues and challenges that greatly complicate e-waste management; (c) to gain insight into the current e-waste legacy contamination in terms of critical, emerging or still-unknown human health issues (including occupational health concerns) and environmental contamination, and (d) to propose solutions that could potentially curb e-waste issues both upstream and downstream.
Section snippets
Background: a bird's-eye view of the history of e-waste management
In the 1970s and 1980s, hazardous waste, including e-waste, was commonly shipped from industrialized countries to less developed nations in Asia, Africa, Central America and Eastern Europe (UNEP, 2010). The hazardous waste trade is rooted in the “Not in My Back Yard” syndrome in developed countries, an expression of the public's vehement stand against poor management of hazardous waste, including e-waste. Since the 1970s, it has led to the adoption of more stringent laws in the developed
Ongoing gaps, issues and challenges in e-waste management
For e-waste management to be respectful of the environment and human health, it has to be properly and effectively handled. Effective e-waste management first consists of collecting and sorting e-waste, and repairing and reusing it whenever possible. End-of-life e-waste is then processed to remove and decontaminate all potentially toxic compounds, to properly recover valuable materials, and finally, to safely dispose of toxic parts and non-recyclable residuals (Namias, 2013, Baldé et al., 2015,
E-waste legacy contamination
E-waste handling and processing have the potential to release a complex blend of contaminants in various environmental matrices. These releases can be more or less significant, depending on the processes used and the protective measures implemented. Contaminants in e-waste are released in highly heterogeneous mixtures, whose composition varies according to e-waste types and age, as well as handling and processing. The physical state of the released contaminants varies with the nature of the
Potential solutions to curb e-waste issues
Solving e-waste issues is a long-term, challenging and costly task and calls for the full collaboration of all stakeholders involved (e.g., government, scientific community, chemical manufacturers, e-product designers, retailers and collectors, e-recyclers and end consumers). However, any action taken to address e-waste problems could benefit from a firm governmental position in terms of tighter laws, regulations and policies, including surveillance of the Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR)
Conclusion
To the best of our knowledge, this is the first paper to adopt a holistic approach that exposes the extreme complexity of the issues, challenges and gaps (including human health concerns and environmental degradation) associated with the tricky e-waste question, and that suggests potential solutions, both upstream and downstream. The many initiatives launched thus far to advocate suitable management practices are facing disappointing realities, which are reflected in heavy legacy contamination
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by the Institut de Recherche Robert-Sauvé en Santé et en Sécurité du Travail (IRSST), Montreal, Quebec, Canada (grant no. 2015-0083).
Disclaimer
The findings and conclusions in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.
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