Original Research ArticleFreshwater spring indicator taxa of benthic invertebrates
Introduction
Groundwater contributes to streams, lakes and wetlands as a water source in their water cycling systems. In case there are distinctive springs in the water body, it is easier to detect and estimate the ground water contribution to the surface water systems quantitatively. In case of no distinctive springs appear out of the water, however, it is not easy to make the quantitative estimation. With the increasing attention for the importance of interaction between groundwater and surface water bodies, several direct and indirect methods have been conducted to evaluate the contribution of groundwater to surface water system in previous studies.
Rozemeijer et al. (2010) used direct filed-scale measurements of groundwater flow route contribution to surface water contamination. The groundwater discharge was separately captured from the tube drain effluent in the filed by a novel experimental setup. Priest (2004) estimated groundwater discharge to streams using indirect methods of hydrograph-separation techniques, drought-streamflow measurements, and linear-regression analysis of streamflow duration. The groundwater discharge data were then used in a groundwater model to evaluate groundwater flow. Heat tracer methods based on vertical and streamed temperature profiles and regional mass balancing approaches based on measurements are also used as indirect methods to estimate the contribution of groundwater discharge to streams (Kalbus et al., 2006, Van den Eertwegh et al., 2006).
Indirect measurements of groundwater flow using simulation models were widely conducted in previous researches. However, they have a imitation to estimate the discharge of groundwater in a local scale because the numerical simulation requires a set of information on boundary conditions some of which are difficult to measure in the field, e.g., local variation of underground permeability. As to another indirect methods of hydrograph-separation using any tracer concentration also assume that individual flow routes are constant in time, while as a matter of fact, several studies have shown variable solute concentrations (Rozemeijer et al., 2009, Tiemeyer et al., 2006, Langlois and Mehuys, 2003). In this respect, direct field-scale measurements of groundwater flow are desirable for evaluating groundwater contribution to streams, however, it is also difficult for some field researches which are operated under limited conditions within limited time, to capture sufficient data for estimation.
Springs have several ecological functions including provision of water itself, nutrients and stable water temperature to streams and lakes. Such a special location and characteristics of springs make a high value to freshwater biodiversity, linking groundwater and surface water, as well as groundwater and terrestrial ecosystems. Benthic invertebrates include surface water species, groundwater dependent species, and some wetland and terrestrial species that benefit from groundwater environment inhabit in such spring habitats (Danielopol and Pospisil, 2001, Stubbington and Wood, 2013.). Because the benthic community is so dependent on its surroundings, strongly affected by their environment, including sediment composition and quality, water quality, and hydrological factors that influence the physical habitat, it serves as a biological indicator that reflects the overall condition of the aquatic environment. However, documentation of above species and the methods of using them as biological indicators for groundwater and springs is scant.
In this study, we present biological indicators of benthic invertebrates to evaluate the contribution of groundwater to surface water bodies. It is theoretically true that appearance of groundwater or cave dwellers in the riverbed indicates the existence of springs nearby of upper stream. In addition, even surface water dwellers might depend on springs as a habitat because of thermal and/or water quality conditions. Thus, in this paper, we define the spring dependent species as those composed of groundwater species (Stygobites & Stygophiles), cave species (Troglobites & Troglophile), and stenothermal species. If we can detect all the members of those species, it will be possible to estimate a comparative value of groundwater contribution to surface water.
In order to identify the spring dependent species as a spring indicator, we collected data of benthic invertebrates from literature on a global scale and additional field research in Japan. By analyzing their taxonomic and their biological habits. Based on the geographical distribution patterns of the spring indicator taxa, stenothermal species were classified into “cold stenothermal species” which evolutionarily originate more boreal regions and “warm stenothermal species” derived from more tropical regions. Ecological interpretation of these stenothermal species was discussed in relation to climatic zones and altitude of the basin concerned. Based on the variations of spring contribution to river ecosystems suggested by the spring indicator species, we proposed an application procedure of the spring indicators to environmental assessment and nature conservation works in river management.
Section snippets
Data collection
Macroinvertebrate data were extracted from the most recent publications regarding macroinvertebrate (benthic invertebrate) and spring habitats and two original field surveys conducted in Japan. The data list was created also with the aid of the Web of Science Core collection (TR) database and the recent check list of the recent freshwater ostracod fauna (Karanovic, 2012). We selected 249 sampling sites mainly from two water body types: springs and spring-fed flows. Throughout this paper, we
Taxonomic composition of spring fauna
A total of 1448 aquatic invertebrate taxa representing 58 orders were found from 249 research sites. The invertebrate fauna in springs are dominated by Diptera and Trichoptera, and Plecoptera. Coleoptera, Ephemeroptera, Amphipoda and Isopoda are also relatively common. In Diptera, Chironomidae had the most number of species that occurred in springs, followed by Limoniidae, Tipulidae, Dixidae, Simuliidae, Ceratopogonidae and Psychodidae. In Trichoptera, Limnephilidae had the most number of
Discussion
It is widely known that the special characteristics of springs, the locations of springs at the interface between groundwater, surface water and terrestrial ecosystems have led to a high value of their biodiversity and high contribution to ecosystem services. However, until recently, very little research has focused on spring ecosystems or their dependent species. This lack of information and attention to spring ecosystems has resulted in the loss of many springs through poor groundwater and
Conclusion
This study identified spring indicator taxa of benthic invertebrates from data set collected from field research and literature on a continental and worldwide scale. The information provided by the spring indicator taxa of an aquifer can reflect the contacts between the surface origin of the water and may be used as an indicator of groundwater and spring evaluation. Given the susceptibility of springs and groundwater to modification from land-use change and water abstraction, many species
Conflict of interest
None declared.
Ethical statement
Authors state that the research was conducted according to ethical standards.
Acknowledgements
None.
Funding body: None.
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