Full length articleThe combined effects of parental divorce and parental history of depression on cannabis use in young adults in France
Introduction
Cannabis is the most frequently used illegal drug in industrialized countries (European Monitoring Center for Drugs and Drug Addition, 2010). In France, cannabis use levels are among the highest in Europe and comparable to rates observed in the US (Legleye et al., 2009, Melchior et al., 2008, Redonnet et al., 2011). In a large, nationally representative sample of French youth, aged 12–26 years, 42% of the youth sampled had used cannabis (Melchior et al., 2008).
This high usage of cannabis is a concern, as a number of studies have demonstrated adverse effects of cannabis on respiratory function (Aldington et al., 2007, Taylor et al., 2000, Taylor et al., 2002), psychosocial wellbeing (Arseneault et al., 2002, Hall and Solowij, 1998, McGee et al., 2000, Patton et al., 2002), traffic injuries (Asbridge et al., 2005, Gerberich et al., 2003, Ramaekers et al., 2004) and serious mental disorders (Arseneault et al., 2002). In a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies, lifetime cannabis use was associated with a 41% increased risk of any psychotic outcome (Moore et al., 2007). In a sample of 10,748 French drivers, cannabis users were about three times more likely to be responsible for vehicle crashes when compared to non-users (Laumon et al., 2005).
To understand familial risk and protective factors associated with cannabis use, a number of longitudinal and cross-sectional studies have examined parental marital status (Amato and Keith, 1991, Hayatbakhsh et al., 2006, Ledoux et al., 2002, Needle et al., 1990), parental mental health status, (Weissman et al., 1997, Cortes et al., 2009) and their respective associations with illegal substance use (including cannabis) in children. These studies have largely focused on adolescents (Cortes et al., 2009, Hayatbakhsh et al., 2006, Ledoux et al., 2002, Needle et al., 1990, Neher and Short, 1998) compared to young adults (Leib et al., 2002, Hayatbakhsh et al., 2009).
In these studies, parental history of depression and parental divorce has been shown to be independently associated with illicit drug use in children. In a cross-sectional community sample of adolescents and young adults, offspring of parents with major depressive disorders had a 40% higher risk of illicit drug use (including cannabis) compared to those whose parents did not have any depressive disorders (Leib et al., 2002). Cortes et al. (2009) reported that similar to major depression, maternal depressive mood was also significantly associated with adolescent cannabis use.
In a longitudinal survey, Needle et al. (1990) found that offspring of parents who were divorced reported increased rates of overall drug involvement than those whose parents were married. In France, Ledoux et al. (2002) also observed that offspring of parents from non-intact homes were more likely to report higher use of cannabis compared to those who did not come from such a home. The association between parental divorce and illicit drug use has been suggested as being weak (Amato and Keith, 1991).
Our work seeks to fill the gap identified in the literature on cannabis use and contributes to a better understanding of the familial environment as a contributor to the parent–child transactional processes underscoring substance use (Kumpfer and Bluth, 2004). Currently, the effect of both parental divorce and parental history of depression on cannabis use has not been examined. The combined effect of these two parental variables on cannabis use in young adults has only been speculated (Hayatbakhsh et al., 2006). The aim of this study was to evaluate the individual and combined effect of parental divorce and parental history of depression on current cannabis use in a community sample of French young adults. We hypothesized that each would be independent risk factors, and that young adults who have been exposed to both parental divorce and parental history of depression will be more likely to be current users of cannabis compared to those who have not had these two risk factors.
Section snippets
Methods
The Trajectoires Épidémiologiques en Population (TEMPO) study based in France began in 2009 among young adults aged 22–35 years. These young adults are children of participants of the ongoing GAZEL cohort study (1989–2009; Goldberg et al., 2007). In 1991, all GAZEL participants took part in the GAZEL Youth Study, which aimed to assess the prevalence of mental health problems and access to health care in children (Fombonne and Vermeersch, 1997). The original sample included one 4–16 year old child
Results
Participant characteristics are presented in Table 1. Our sample had a mean age of 29 years and approximately 59% were female. Fifteen percent had parents who were divorced and 30% had parents with a history of depression. Young adult mean age at the time of parental divorce, excluding those whose parents were divorced in 1989, was 17 years (range 3–32). Six percent of young adults who had parents with a history of depression were also divorced. Sixty-one percent of young adults experienced
Discussion
To our knowledge, to date no study has examined the co-morbidity of parental divorce and parental history of depression on cannabis use in young adults. Our primary hypothesis was that young adults who have experienced both parental divorce and parental history of depression are more likely to use cannabis in young adulthood compared to those who have experienced neither of these. Our main finding is that young adults who experienced both parental divorce and parental history of depression have
Role of funding source
This research was funded by the French Ministry of Health-IReSP (TGIR Cohortes), the French Inter-departmental Mission for the fight against drugs and drug addiction (MILDT), The French Institute of Cancer (INCa), and the French Foundation for Research on Psychiatry and Mental Health (FRPSM). Dr. Maria Melchior is the recipient of a Young Researcher Award from the French National Research Agency (ANR). The funders had no further role in study design; in the collection, analysis and
Contributors
K.S. Sakyi performed the analysis and wrote the paper. K.S. Sakyi, A. Chollet, P.J. Surkan and M. Melchior contributed to the interpretation of the results and revision of the manuscript. K.S. Sakyi, P.J. Surkan and M. Melchior conceived the study idea.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
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