Experimental simulation of friction and wear of carbon yarns during the weaving process
Introduction
Nowadays, carbon is often used in mechanical industries for reinforcement of composite materials. Most of the time, this carbon is in the form of yarns. These yarns, made of multifilaments, are woven. According to the application, the interlacement of the yarns, i.e. the kind of weave, can change. The main goal of these materials is to assure the required mechanical properties in specific directions whilst minimising the global mass of the mechanical part. The most important domains for use of these materials are transportation (automotive, airplane, rail) and space.
During the weaving of these carbon yarns, friction phenomena occur, breaking fibres and affecting the production process [1]. There is friction between yarns and metallic parts of the weaving machine but also friction between only yarns. This damage decreases the mechanical properties of these carbon woven fabrics, and are more particularly common in 3D-weaving [2], for interlocking woven fabrics. The final composite part then shows some defects [3]. Mechanical properties of yarns after each step of the weaving process can be evaluated [4]. Studies have been conducted for different types of yarns (carbon, polyester, glass, etc.) and for different weaving parameters. For instance, the effect of the tensioning step [5] or the shedding parameters [6], [7] have been studied in order to reduce the yarn damage during the weaving process.
This study concerns only the friction phenomena between yarns and more particularly between warp yarns (Fig. 1). Friction between warp and weft, which occurs during the weft insertion, is not considered in this paper, because it occurs once for each yarn portion during the process and is therefore not considered to be crucial.
Several studies have been done to quantify friction between fibres or yarns. Most of them are summarised by Hong and Jayaraman [8]. For these methods, the contact can be punctual or linear. In Howell’s method [9], [10] the contact is punctual between two fibres. The first fibre part is hung and the tension is given by a dead mass. The other fibre is taut on a horizontal bow with a lateral movement, which drags a displacement of the hung fibre. This displacement is linked to the static coefficient of friction (COF) between these fibres. The hanging fibre method [11], [12], [13] is close to the previous one. The horizontal fibre is fixed with a tension and the hung fibre has a vertical movement. The apparent load of the vertical fibre changes according to the coefficient of friction between these fibres obtained from the capstan equation. This method is also applied to estimate the coefficient of friction of yarns [14]. Mercer and Makinson [15] and Gralen and Olofsson [16] have measured friction between two fibres taut by two perpendicular bows. They studied the friction evolution relative to the sliding distance and the stick–slip.
Others methods have a linear contact. The fibre twist method [17] consists of twisting two yarns or fibres together. The force to extract a fibre is used to calculate the COF from the capstan equation. Another method used is based on the capstan method by covering a roller with the tested yarn or fibre [18]. The measurement can be done by measuring the force for moving the yarn against this roller. This method is used for the measurement of yarn to yarn friction for carbon by Cornelissen et al. [19], [20] and Chakladar et al. [21] by wrapping friction pulleys with carbon tows. The influence of the experimental conditions, and more particularly fibre orientation and tow size, is evaluated. These two methods (i.e. fibre twist and the capstan method) are used in ASTM D3412-01 [22].
However, no method proposes to study the friction between yarns with respect to the particular kinematic of warp yarns with an angular movement occurring during weaving process. The experiment developed in this study consists of reproducing this movement and analysing the influence of the experimental parameters: the oscillation angle, the oscillation frequency and the normal force between yarns.
Section snippets
Carbon yarn investigated
The study is carried out on 3 K carbon yarn (HTA40) manufactured by Toho Tenax Europe GmbH. That means that there are 3000 filaments of carbon per yarn section, whose diameter is 7 μm. The tensile modulus is 240 GPa and the tensile strength is 4100 MPa (datum from the producer).
Friction experiment
The objective is to simulate the weaving process in terms of friction stress. Friction measurements are performed by means of a NTR2 nanotribometer (CSM Instrument Company, Peseux, Switzerland). This device is originally a
Influence of the initial normal load
The influence of the normal load on the friction behaviour and wear phenomena are studied through the results obtained for the three values of initial normal loads: 200, 500 and 800 mN. The oscillation frequency is 3 Hz and the oscillation angle is 34°, i.e. ±17°.
It is interesting to note the evolution of the friction phenomena from the first cycle to the last cycle towards a quasi-constant cycle (Fig. 6). This trend is the same for all the friction tests. In the study only the average cycles are
Influence of the normal load
The obtained decrease of the coefficient of friction with the increase of the normal load is well known for some materials including textile materials. In fact for textile materials, the coefficient of friction (COF) follows the commonly used empirical law established by Bowden and Young [28]: the COF μ ∝ Wn−1, where W is the normal force and n is a coefficient between 2/3 and 1 [29], [30], [31], [32], [33].
Moreover, the evolution of the normal force mean value during a friction cycle relative to
Conclusion
During the weaving of carbon yarn that is often used in composite materials, some damage appears that decreases the mechanical characteristic of the final part. The study allows a better understanding of the friction phenomena that occurs during the weaving process and more particularly, between warp yarns during shedding. A specific experiment has been developed in order to reproduce this yarn crossing kinematic. The friction phenomena occurring between carbon yarns have been studied.
The
Acknowledgment
The authors want to thank Toho Tenax Europe GmbH for providing carbon filament yarns.
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