Elsevier

Chemosphere

Volume 311, Part 2, January 2023, 136926
Chemosphere

Application of nano remediation of mine polluted in acid mine drainage water using machine learning model

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.136926Get rights and content

Highlights

  • PEI-DE particles' copper absorption level was examined by using synthetic and actual acid mine drainage samples at varied pH values.

  • The findings of the copper uptake particles have been examined using several computational models.

  • Using the n-fold 14 cross-validation approach, the quantities of parameters and C are estimated to be 0.001 and 0.01, SVM analysis was correct.

  • Copper absorption of PEI-DE particles from synthetic and genuine acid mine drainage samples was studied under several pH conditions.

  • Studies of filtering water at pH1 later confirmed that all of the adsorbed Cu was released.

Abstract

Acid mine drainage (AMD) is the term used to describe drainage from coal mines with high sulfur-bearing rocks. The oxidative weathering of metal sulfides leads to AMD. The acidic environment corrodes more harmful compounds in the soil, which is spread throughout the working area. One such significant metal is copper, which is extracted in massive quantities from ores rich in sulfide. A copper-extraction resin might be created by combining diatomaceous earth (DE) particles with polyethyleneimine (PEI), which is shown to have great selectivity and affinity for copper. In this effort, PEI-DE particles’ copper absorption level was examined by using synthetic and actual acid mine drainage samples at varied pH values. The findings of the copper uptake particles have been examined through the Support Vector Machine (SVM) model. Using the n-fold 14 cross-validation approach, the quantities of parameters and C are estimated to be 0.001 and 0.01, respectively. The SVM analysis was correct, and the findings indicated that copper could bind to the material efficiently and preferentially at pH 4. Subsequent water elution studies at a pH value of 1 confirmed the pH-reliant interaction between dissolved Cu and PEI by demonstrating full release of the adsorbed Cu. In this research, the copper absorption of PEI-DE particles from synthetic and genuine AMD specimens was studied based on several pH conditions. The findings suggest that copper may attach to the material effectively and preferentially at pH 4. Studies of filtering water at pH1 later confirmed that all of the adsorbed Cu was released. This shows that the interaction between PEI and dissolved Cu depends on PH.

Graphical abstract

Treatment of acid mine drainage (AMD) (a). The treatment process comprises three steps which include neutralization, using magnesite, gypsum synthesis, using lime and limestone synthesis, using CO2 bubbling. Few parameters as structure, flow direction, and size differ among reactors, however, passive systems include at least two biotic procedures: sulfate decline to H2 sulfide pollution with organic compounds' oxidation and breakdown of polymeric organic matter into low-molecular weight organic compounds (b).

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Introduction

Acid mine drainage (AMD) refers to the environmental pollution (Pan and Chen, 2021, Dai et al., 2022), particularly aquatic bodies, by the drainage of water from locations including sulfur-bearing minerals. This is a serious problem nowadays. Even though AMD may occur naturally, human activities as the processing of metal coal and mining can contribute considerably to its creation on a wide scale (Johnson and Hallberg, 2005; Chahnasir et al., 2018; Arabnejad Khanouki et al., 2010a). Mining exposes sulfide minerals to the environment, leading to the production of an excessive quantity of acid that may have both immediate and long-term harmful consequences for the ecosystem. Acid mine drainage has remained a significant environmental problem. Metal mining is one of the biggest environmental problems that needs to be dealt with (Kleinmann, 1985; Pierson-Wickmann et al., 2011; Rezania et al., 2017; Ge et al., 2019). AMD has a lot of negative impacts, such as destroying the quality of the soil and causing mining equipment and machinery to rust (Gaikwad and Gupta, 2008; ; ; ). It also hurts the ecosystems of the streams that get the drainage water and pollutes the groundwater by letting heavy metals leach out of the acid mine water (Adler and Rascher, 2007; Kamyab et al., 2014a, 2016a; Guan et al., 2021). Acid mine drainage water has been linked to both environmental and health problems (Lin et al., 2022; Abdullah et al., 2022; Vadivelu et al., 2020; Chelliapan et al., 2020). Additionally, attempts have been done to highlight the application of two emerging techniques (phytoremediation and Nanoremediation (Kleinmann, 1985)) together (Bai et al., 2022, Liu et al., 2008). A hypothetical model was developed in which hyperaccumulator plants might be trained to improve their phyto-remedial capacity for the effective treatment of mine-polluted water. When exposed to water or air, sulfide-containing minerals such as iron disulfide or iron pryrite undergo natural oxidation, resulting in AMD (Putri et al., 2011; Kamyab et al.; Vasseghian et al., 2022; Kamyab et al., 2016b). In addition to natural processes, human activities as mining and building expose the earth's surface, result in acidic drainage. The interaction between oxygen, water and metal sulfides produces metal sulfates and sulfuric acid. Metals may be further oxidized to enhance acidity (Banfield and Nealson, 2018; Banfield, 1997; Rezania et al., 2019; Roudi, 2014; Ilmasari et al., 2022). Water enters the mines as fresh water, either as precipitation or as water utilized for drilling, dust control, and other mining processes. There is always the possibility of groundwater seepage into underground mines via cracks and fissures (Hubicki and Kołodyńska, 2012; Anita et al., 2014; Abd Majid et al., 2015a; Kamyab et al., 2016c). The oxidized products of sulfide minerals are carried by water into the surrounding water, where they may then be carried to nearby rivers and other bodies of water (Singh, 1987; Yang et al., 2022; Abd Majid et al., 2015b; Ahmad et al., 2016). In a variety of sectors, including pharmaceuticals, mineral and mining processing, food, manufacturing, power and fuel, wastewater and water treatment, and agriculture, the optimized removal of dissolved metal ions and species from water solutions is an insurmountable issue (Hubicki and Kołodyńska, 2012; Sharma et al., 2022; Azizan et al., 2022a). For instance, there are techno-economic restrictions on the use of standard division and/or purifying procedures to address hazardous or heavy metal water contamination caused by industrial, mining, agricultural, and chemical waste disposal operations (John, 2002; Duffus, 2002; Kamyab et al., 2022a; Michael et al., 2022; Balaraman et al., 2020). As an alternative, less costly mesoporous and naturally occurring materials like diatomaceous earth (DE) particles are drawing significant interest (Iiyama et al., 2004; Setia et al., 2021; Krishnan et al., 2021; Selvama et al., 2019; Yu et al., 2012; Azizan et al., 2022b). These materials have high metal ion sorption capacities comparable to the high-cost synthetic adsorbents. The most appealing characteristics of DE particles are their low cost, abundance in nature, and distinctive and complex structural, mechanical, and chemical features. The current, rapidly expanding interest in its use for water filtration is also due to the result of these fundamental properties (Iiyama et al., 2004; Bariana et al., 2013; Rezania et al., 2022). For instance, it has been studied how varied circumstances (such as heat and pH) affect the adsorption of organic pollutants and heavy metal ions onto unaltered and modified DE particles from aqueous solutions. Studies on the removal of Cr (III) ions and U(VI) from aqueous solution by functionalized and unfunctionalized DE particles revealed that the former's adsorption capability was significantly improved (Alothman and Apblett, 2010; Wang and Smith, 2007; Cheah et al., 2018; Qureshi et al., 2022a; Liu et al., 2020). According to Gao et al. (2005), PEI-functionalized DE particles demonstrated an extremely potent phenol-trapping effect in neutral aqueous solution by combining strong electrostatic and hydrogen bonding interactions. Numerous investigations into the DE material on Cu adsorption and heavy metals (i.e., mercury, chromium, and nickel) from water systems have been conducted to date (Iiyama et al., 2004; Aivalioti et al., 2012; Qureshi et al., 2022b; Zain et al., 2022). The utilization of copper for cutting-edge marine applications as well as the treatment of copper-contaminated marine habitats may both be made possible by materials that can bind copper from saltwater (Shu et al., 2021; Shi et al., 2020; Shah et al., 2016a). Copper pollution in marinas may come from the anti-biofouling coatings on boats, and tributyltin (TBT) free anti-biofouling coatings might follow the same rules (Lindén et al., 2015; Awual et al., 2013; Schiff, 2004; Esfahan et al., 2020; Oryani et al., 2022). So far, the industrial and academic groups studies on antibiofouling coatings are not able to come up with new environment friendly alternatives and don't use biocides, but work as the coatings and release copper. A method for preventing biofouling that uses the accumulation and release of copper, which is normally found in large amounts in water, to create a biocidal flux of copper across an interface, such as a coating, without putting any copper into the water (Arabi-Nowdeh et al., 2021). The method uses polymers that are selective for copper for uptake and polymers that conduct electricity and are active for triggering release. It has four steps: 1) copper is taken up by the coating, 2) an electrochemical stimulus starts the coating to release copper, 3) the released copper prevents biofouling, and 4) an electrochemical stimulus switches the coating back to copper-uptake mode. Copper can always be found in saltwater, so this would make it possible for a cycle that never ends. A variety of AMD treatment methods were created to date depending on biological, physical, and chemical processes, either in combination or alone. Systems are often divided into “active " or “passive” categories based on the procedure (Taylor et al., 2005; Sheoran and Sheoran, 2006; Milovančević et al., 2019; Azizan et al. Kamyab; Shah et al., 2016b). Processes including ion exchange, electrochemical concentration, precipitation or PH regulation, redox control (sulfate reduction), absorption, biological mediation, flocculation/filtration/settling and crystallization are examples (Taylor et al., 2005; Sheoran and Sheoran, 2006; Akinwekomi et al., 2016; Zhang et al., 2016; Yadav et al., 2022; Shariati et al., 2021a; Kamyab et al., 2022b). The key distinction among these treatment methods is how well they can handle the flow rate, acidity, and acidity load of the influent AMD (Taylor et al., 2005; Kamyab et al., 2014b, 2014c, ). The most frequent and inexpensive approach utilized is pH control via low cost neutralizing reagents (such as pervious concrete, limestone) (Shabalala et al., 2017; Offeddu et al., 2015, 2014; Zainah and Shahaboddin, 1801; Shariati et al., 2020a). Because of its considerable long-term environmental and economic effects, AMD continues to provide a serious challenge to the environmental and mining industries (Taylor et al., 2005; McCarthy, 2011; Jamal et al., 2015) despite numerous researches on the development of various solutions for treatment. For example, one of the most frequent sources of metal contamination in freshwater is mining activity in general and AMD in particular (Shariati et al., 2011a). The ease of sulfide minerals' oxidation toward the generation of acid leads to contaminated wastewater in many mine sites. Acid relates to the overburden or waste deposit while there are no calcareous materials (Rezania et al., 2018; Ashokkumar et al., 2019; Khoshnava et al., 2020). Acid rock drainage (ARD) might have a high amount of sulfate, iron and base metals as zinc, lead, copper, silver, nickel, or based on the constituents of the waste, and shows pH ratios totally below 7. Considering the lack of an obvious view of the initial pyrite oxidation process, ARD generation is defined as a complex process, including solid–solution equilibria, complexation and hydrolysis reactions, and a few oxidation–reduction reactions. Thus, the real ARD generation reactions are both chemical and involve some biochemical or biological impacts that add to the vagueness of the process (Shariati et al., 2019a; Yavari et al., 2022; Hosseini et al., 2019). Despite many works on ARD formation, ARD still is a major surrounding concern in terms of the mineral and mining industry. ARD has the repeated treatment and collection of the generated acidic effluent (Velu et al., 2021; Shariati et al., 2012a). Regardless of its high cost and ineffectiveness, this method needs an indefinite period of treatment sludge disposal and treatment facilities because acid generation might last for decades following mine closure. Except for a few, the majority of studies focus on effluent treatment enhancement systems rather than controlling ARD formation at the source. The use of chelating diamines to remove copper from tainted natural waters was effectively shown by Chouyyok et al. (2010). In terms of mining the oceans, it should be noted that polymer-based materials have received the majority of attention based on the Schwochau's critical evaluation (Schwochau, 1984), but this process requires high energy (Bardi, 2010). Polyethyleneimine (PEI)-based materials were highly studied for metal binding (Duru et al., 2001). Fe2+,Co2+,Zn2+,Ni2+,Hg2+,Cr3+,Cd2+,Pb2+, andCu2+ has been demonstrated as the removal ions from waste waters (Pang et al., 2011) with a strong preference for copper (Pang et al., 2011; Beatty et al., 1999; Prasad et al., 2020; Soltani et al., 2013). PEI is often attached to carrier particles, such as poly (methyl methacrylate) microspheres (Maketon and Ogden, 2008; Steinmann et al., 1994), porous cellulose material (Chanda and Pillay, 2005), silica powder (Deng and Ting, 2005a), porous magnetic agarose beads (Deng and Ting, 2005b), commercial acrylic fiber (Chanda and Pillay, 2005), agarose beads, and polystyrene-based macroporous cation exchange resin (Chanda and Pillay, 2005). Fig. 1 shows AMD treatment.

Sulfuric acid and iron sulfate are produced primarily as a result of reactions between oxygen, water, and pyritic sulfur. This kind of situation often occurs in coal mines, and the resulting acidic environment encourages the development and activity of several acidophilic bacteria, including Thiobacillus ferroxidans. The bacterium speeds up the acid-making reaction and makes it happen highly faster than chemical oxidation, which makes the water more acidic (Singh and Bhatnagar, 1985; BridgeHallberg, 2005; Shariati et al., 2020b, 2020c). The hydrolysis of oxidized pyrite products and the production of sulfuric acid are the two key factors that control how acidic the mine drainage water is. In contrast, the sulfur content aids in determining how much reactive pyrite is present in a certain stream (Singh, 1987). Fig. 2 shows the schematic of the copper-binding design.

First, water and oxygen in the air react with ferrous sulfide (pyrite) to make ferrous sulfate and sulfuric acid.FeS2+H2O+312O2FeSO4+H2SO4

Ferric sulfate gets dissolved in the acidic water.FeSO4Fe2(SO4)32Fe3++3SO42

Upon coming into contact with water, Fe3+ may undergo a hydrolysis reaction, forming ferric hydroxide and releasing hydrogen ions in the process. The hydrogen ions cause the acidity of water to rise.Fe3++3H2OFe(OH)3+3H+

Fig. 3 shows that by utilizing waste digested activated sludge, metal ions from acidic multi-metal mine water are removed and recovered. The majority of the waste produced by industrial activity worldwide is comprised of tailings, which are produced by mineral processing and mining facilities (Kagambega et al., 2014; Lottermoser, 2010; Krishnan et al., 2022; Othman et al., 2021). Although there is a lack of precise information on mine waste production, some estimates indicate that 20–25 million tons of solid mine waste are generated annually globally (Sheoran and Sheoran, 2006; Kagambega et al., 2014; Nor et al., 2022; Soni et al., 2022; Al-Dailami et al., 2022). One of the unintended effects of coal and metal mining operations is the discharge of acidic water from certain mine wastes as AMD illustrated in Equations (4), (5), (6), (7), when residual sulfide minerals like pyrite are oxidized with water, bacteria and air (oxygen) to release protons of (H+) and hence reduce pH (Jennings et al., 2008; Kokila et al., 2021). Some of these processes (Eq. (5), (6), and (7)) are termed to be catalyzed by Fe and sulfur-oxidizing bacteria at low pH, boosting the rates of reactions by many orders of magnitude (Jennings et al., 2008; Nordstrom and Southam, 1997; Yazdani et al., 2021).2FeS2(s)+2H2O+7O22Fe2++4H++4SO422Fe2++12O2+2H+H2O+2Fe3+6H2O+2Fe3+6H++2Fe(OH)3(s)14Fe3++FeS2(s)+8H2O2SO42+16H++15Fe2+

The total oxidation of pyrite is a complicated procedure which include a variety of products and reactants under different sates. The pyrite oxidation caused by exposure to air has been extensively studied and is described by Equations (8), (9) (Simate and Ndlovu, 2014; Black and Craw, 2001; Bwapwa et al., 2017). As shown in the formula, the oxidation of pyrite by oxygen in the presence of water is the initial step in the weathering of pyrite (1). Ferrous iron is liberated when sulfur is oxidized to sulfate. For every mole of pyrite that is oxidized, this process makes 2 mol of acid.2FeS2+2H2O+7O22Fe2++4H++4SO42Pyrite+Water+OxygenFerrousIron+Acidity+Sulfate

The rate-controlling step is the oxidation of ferrous ions to ferric ions. One mole of acid is used for every mole of ferrous ions present. Certain bacteria accelerate this pH-dependent chemical process. Under acidic circumstances (pH between 2 and 3) and in the absence of microorganisms, the process proceeds slowly. Nevertheless, at a pH of ∼5, the reaction ratio is quicker. The response is4Fe2++4H++O22H2O+4Fe3+

After that, iron undergoes hydrolysis, causing the water molecule to break and producing additional acid. Ferric hydroxide is precipitated above pH 3.5. Ferric hydroxide precipitate (solid) production is pH based. If the pH is more than ∼3.5, solids are developed; but at pH 3.5 or below, little to no solids are precipitated.2Fe3++6H2O2Fe(OH)3+6H+

Water + Ferric Iron Acidity + Ferric Hydroxide (yellowboy).

Later, Ferric iron could oxidize more pyrite in a fast and continues reaction until the depletion of pyrite or ferric iron.FeS2+8H2O+14Fe3+2SO42+15Fe2++16H+

Pyrite + Water + Ferric Iron Acidity + Sulfate + Ferrous Iron Accordingly, significant acid is gained by the overall reaction.4FeS2+15O2+14H2O8H2SO4+4Fe(OH)3Pyrite+Water+OxygenSulfuricAcid+YellowboyCuS+O2+H2OCu2++SO42+H+

The metals contained in other minerals may then be released by dissolving them with this acid. Cu is one of the main metals released by this process, having risk parameters that prevent its entering to the environment.

Due to its considerable long-term and economic environmental effects, AMD continues to provide a serious challenge to the environment and mining industry (Taylor et al., 2005; McCarthy, 2011; Jamal et al., 2015) despite numerous researches on the development of various solutions for treatment. For example, one of the most frequent sources of metal contamination in freshwater is mining activity in general and AMD in particular. The primary goals of this research are to describe the copper binding of PEI-DE nanoparticles and to look into the removal and selective recovery of Cu from freshwater contaminated with AMD. To accomplish this, PEI-DE particles were examined for copper extraction from model AMD-relevant solutions, and the effectiveness was shown in a real solution. Support vector machine analysis (SVM) has also been used to look into the copper uptake particles' results (Shariati et al., 2021b; Soni and Das, 2022). Fig. 4 shows Polyethyleneimine particles.

Free Cu2+ significantly raised the conductivity of the solution in Fig. 7a as the Cu2+ concentration in the 10 mM PEI solution was raised till all chelation sites were used. In contrast, Fig. 7b shows that as the PEI content rises, the conductivity of the 1 mM CuSO4 solution reduces till all Cu2+ is bound. The ratio of chelation between the Cu and PEI amino groups may be calculated in both situations by looking at the point at which the slope of the curve varies. In both circumstances, this ratio is 0.25 for the PEI/Cu ratio or 4. The process in eq. (4) shifts to the left, lowering pH, and due to the positive charges, the PEI/Cu could attract anions (OH in Eq. (16)), due to the use of un-protonated amino groups by Cu2+4PEI+Cu2+4PEICu2+4PEICu2++2H2O4PEICu2+2OH+2H+

In recent years, Artificial Intelligence (AI) technique has been widely used in various applications (Zhao et al., 2020a, 2020b, 2021, 2021; Zhao et al., 2021; Foong et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2021). The capability of AI has been indicated in many studies compared to other numerical methods (Marynirmala and Sivakumar, 2021; Arora et al., 2021; Eyo et al., 2022; Bulut and. Özceylan, 2021; Teimoori et al., 2021; Babaee Khobdeh et al., 2021). Many classification techniques can be divided into unsupervised and supervised categories (Duda and Hart, 2006; Duda et al., 1973; Shariati et al., 2011b, 2012b; Arabnejad Khanouki et al., 2010b). SVM has gained a lot of popularity recently and has been broadly utilized, comprising of classification and regression among others (Maslahati Roudi et al., 2018; Karimi et al., 2016; Nilashi et al., 2019; Hosur Shivaramaiah et al., 2022). The SVM method has also been proved successful in mineral and mining exploration. For example, land cover classification (El-Khoribi, 2008; Shariati et al., 2019b, 2020d), alteration zones (Abbaszadeh et al., 2013), potential mineral mapping (MPM), and separation, multi-classes problems (Zuo and Carranza, 2011; Zhao and Foong, 2022; Zhao and Wang, 2022; Zhao et al., 2020c, 2022; Yan et al., 2019). The porphyry copper deposit (the world's greatest source of copper) is distinguished by low grades and high tons of ore mineralization. It may also be a source of molybdenum and gold (Richards, 2003). As a result, a lot of researchers have looked at porphyry Cu deposits. For instance, changing mapping for porphyry Cu deposits is created using data from remote sensing satellites (Safari et al., 2018; Shariati et al., 2020e). By assessing the preciseness ratio on the SVM efficiency, the impacts of the input characteristics are assessed in this research. Finally, the radial basis function (RBF) is used as a kernel function, and lithology, alteration, mineralization, level, and other input characteristics are used to create the SVM model. Additionally, using the n-fold cross-validation approach, the ideal number of parameters and C are determined at levels of 0.001 and 0.01, respectively. This model has a 0.977 accuracy rating. The study's findings support the SVM method's effectiveness in classifying mineralized zones.

Section snippets

Martials

Fine DE powder was supplied with a specified BET surface area of 34.10 m2/g with a 10th, 40 th and 80th size of 1.8, 6.1, and 15.0 μm (Fig. 3). Sulfuric acid (98 wt%), nitric acid, and branched PEI were used for surface modification and acid purification. Sulfuric acid (98 wt%) and branched PEI (MW = 25,000 g/mol) were provided. Purity sodium hydroxide pellets (99.2%), concentrated nitric acid (37%), and sulfuric acid (95%) were applied to make base or acid solutions for pH adjustment. In all

Result and discussion

As previously mentioned, AMD happens when sulfide minerals are oxidized with oxygen (from the air or dissolved in water) and water (as a vapor or a liquid) to make sulfuric acid. For AMD formation, pyrite's primary reactions are shown below. The first oxidation of pyrite by atmospheric oxygen leads to the production of ferrous (Fe2+) and sulfuric acids as follows:H2O+FeS2+72O2Fe2++2H++2SO42Fe2++1/4O2+H+1/2H2O+Fe3+

Oxygen may cause the ferrous iron to undergo further oxidation, causing ferric

Conclusion

The amount of PEI in solution had no effect on the coating's thickness. With the PEI coating on diatomaceous earth particles as the carrier material, very effective removal of copper from water was shown to be practical, showing promise for extraction of copper from polluted water. It has been shown that PE-DE particles may be used to recover copper more effectively using both model and actual acid mine drainage (AMD) solutions. The SVM is a novel machine learning methodology with a number of

Funding

China Scholarship Council (CSC):Innovative Talents Training Project for Ecological Protection and Quality Development of the Yellow River Bone Region in Henan Province in 2021 (NO.202108410349).

Authorship statement

All persons who meet authorship criteria are listed as authors, and all authors certify that they have participated sufficiently in the work to take public responsibility for the content, including participation in the concept, design, analysis, writing, or revision of the manuscript. Furthermore, each author certifies that this material or similar material has not been and will not be submitted to or published in any other publication before its appearance in the Chemosphere Journal.

Authorship contributions

Mingfei Ji: Methodology, Validation; Supervision, Project administration; Resources, Bailian Li: Data curation. Writing - review & editing; Conceptualization, Writing-review and editing, Ali Majdi: Data curation. Writing - review & editing; Conceptualization, Tamim Alkhalifah: Data curation. Writing - review & editing; Conceptualization, Software; Conceptualization, Writing-review and editing, Fahad Alturise: Data curation. Writing - review & editing; Conceptualization, H. Elhosiny Ali: Data

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgments

The authors extend their appreciation to the Research Center for Advanced Materials Science (RCAMS), King Khalid University, Saudi Arabia, for funding this work under grant number R.G.P.2/120/43. This work was supported by Al-Mustaqbal University College Grant number = MUC -M-0222.

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